APUSH Unit 4 (1800-1848)

4.2: The Rise of Political Parties & the Era of Jefferson

First Party System:

• A political system in the US that emerged in the late 18th century- early 19th century and was characterized by the development of the Federalist Party & the Democratic-Republican Party

Federalist Party:

• Led by Alexander Hamilton & John Adams

• Favored strong federal government & strong central bank (supported national bank)

• Supported strong military and pro-business/manufacturing economic policy

• Favored loose interpretation of the constitution

• favored Britain in European affairs

Democratic-Republican Party:

• Led by Thomas Jefferson & James Madison

• Favored more decentralized government with greater powers for the states

• Supported agrarian economy and more limited federal government

• Strict interpretation of the constitution

• favored France in European affairs

• Low taxes to aid yeoman farmers

Election of 1800: (aka Revolution of 1800) - Federalists lost power in the Revolution of 1800 due to making too many unpopular decisions such as the Jay Treaty & Alien and Sedition Acts, allowing Democratic-Republicans to rise in popularity, resulting in Thomas Jefferson winning the election; was called the Revolution of 1800 because it was a peaceful transition of power from Federalists to Democratic-Republicans

Jefferson’s Presidency:

Louisiana Purchase: large tract of western land that included the Mississippi River which he purchased from France for $15 million

• More than doubled the size of the US, removed European presence from the nation’s borders and extended the western frontier to lands beyond the Mississippi; Jefferson saw the acquisition as a way to fulfill his vision of an agrarian society based on small farmers and believed that the expansion of agriculture was essential for the growth and prosperity of the country

• Lewis & Clark Expedition (1803): Jefferson commissioned the expedition which explored the newly acquired Louisiana territory & established a route to the Pacific Ocean; allowed greater geographic & scientific knowledge and helped to map and document the country’s western territories, laying the foundation for further westward expansion

Marshall’s Court Cases:

Marbury v. Madison (1803): In this landmark case, the Supreme Court established the principle of judicial review, which gives the Court the power to declare a law or government action unconstitutional.

McCulloch v. Maryland (1819): In this case, the Court upheld the power of Congress to create a national bank, rejecting the argument that it exceeded the powers granted to Congress by the Constitution. The decision established the principle of implied powers, which allows Congress to pass laws that are necessary and proper to carry out its constitutional powers.

Dartmouth College v. Woodward (1819): In this case, the Court ruled that a state could not alter the terms of a private contract without violating the Constitution's protection of private property rights. The decision established the principle of contract law and the protection of private property rights under the Constitution.

Cohens v. Virginia (1821): In this case, the Court ruled that the Supreme Court had the authority to review and overturn state court decisions that were in conflict with federal law. The decision established the principle of federal supremacy and the power of the federal courts to interpret and enforce the Constitution.

Gibbons v. Ogden (1824): In this case, the Court ruled that the federal government had the exclusive power to regulate interstate commerce, rejecting the claim that states had the power to regulate commerce within their borders. The decision established the principle of federal supremacy and the power of the federal government to regulate interstate commerce.

Worcester v. Georgia (1832): In this case, the Court ruled that Georgia's laws regulating the presence of Native Americans within the state were unconstitutional and violated the rights of the Cherokee Nation. The decision established the principle of tribal sovereignty and the right of Native American tribes to be treated as sovereign nations with the right to self-governance.

4.3: Politics & Regional Interests

Tariff of 1816: Before the War of 1812, Congress had levied low tariffs on imports as a method for raising government revenue but during the war, manufacturers erected many factories to supply goods that previously had been imported during Britain.

Now in peacetime, American manufacturers feared that British goods would be dumped on American markets and take away their business.

Congress raised tariffs for the express purpose of protecting US manufacturers from competition rather than to simply raise revenue

• 1st protective tariff in US history

Henry Clay’s American System: Henry Clay of Kentucky proposed a method for advancing the US economic growth. His plan has 3 parts:

• Protective tariffs for manufacturing sector

  • protective tariffs would promote American manufacturing/industry by protecting it against foreign competition and raise revenue which could be used to build a national transportation system of federally constructed roads & canals

• A national bank (rechartering the Bank of US)

  • A national bank would provide stable currency and source of credit for the development of industry & commerce

• Internal improvements (federal funding going into internal improvements)

  • The internal improvements (like roads and canals) were intended to promote the development of infrastructure and facilitate trade and communication between the states.

• Tariffs would benefit the East

• internal improvements would promote growth in the West & the South

• the bank would aid the economies of all sections

• Opponents of the American System argued that it represented an unconstitutional expansion of federal power and an unfair burden on the states. 

  • argued that the national bank was a violation of states' rights, that the protective tariffs were harmful to trade and commerce, that internal improvements were costly and unnecessary, and that they represented an unfair burden on the states.

Panic of 1819: occurred after the Second Bank of the US tightened credit and limited loans to control inflation

• As the crisis spread, it led to widespread business failures, unemployment, and a decrease in property values.

• Many state banks closed, and unemployment, bankruptcies, and imprisonment for debt all increased. 

• The economic crisis changed many voters’ political outlook as it shook their national beliefs. People in the West called for land reform and showed opposition to the national bank.

Missouri Compromise: In 1820, Missouri applied for statehood as a slave state which alarmed the North as slavery was very prominent in Missouri and if Missouri came in as a slave state, it would tip the political balance toward the South’s favor

• Tallmadge Amendment: prohibited further introduction of slavery and allowed emancipation for all slave children born in Missouri at age 25. The House of Representatives accepted it, but the Senate rejected it.

  • If adopted the Tallmadge Amendment would have led to the gradual elimination of slavery of Missouri as it tip the balance btwn slave and free states

  • enraged Southerners as they saw it as a step in a northern effort to abolish slavery in all states

• Missouri Compromise: Henry Clay proposed a plan that would keep balance

  1. Admit Missouri as a slave state

  2. Admit Maine as a free state

  3. Prohibit slavery in the rest of the Louisiana Territory north of the latitude 36º30’

The Missouri Compromise would serve as a temporary solution to the issue of slavery between western territories and help alleviate tensions between the North and the South.

However, it was unable to resolve sectionalist tensions between the 2 different regions as sectional controversy over Missouri would leave Americans torn between nationalist and sectionalist interests.

4.4: America on the World Stage

• Jefferson sought to maintain neutrality despite increasing problems with France & Britain during the Napoleonic Wars

Barbary Pirates: To protect US merchant ships from being seized by Barbary pirates, Presidents Washington and Adams had reluctantly agreed to pay tribute to the Barbary governments. The ruler of Tripoli demanded a higher sum in tribute from Jefferson. Refusing to pay, Jefferson sent a small fleet of the US Navy to the Mediterranean. Sporadic fighting with Tripoli lasted for 4 years. Although American navy did not achieve a decisive victory, it did gain some respect and offered a measure of protection to US vessels trading in Mediterranean waters.

Challenges to Neutrality: Meanwhile, the Napoleonic Wars continued to dominate the politics of Europe and shape the commerical economy of the US.

• France and Britain attempted naval blockades of enemy ports and regularly seized ships of neutral nations and confiscated their cargoes. The chief offender from the US POV was Britain, since its navy dominated the Atlantic.

Most infuria\ting was the British practice of capturing US sailors who it claimed were British citizens and impressing (forcing) them to serve in the British army.

Chesapeake Leopard Affair: In 1807, the British warship Leopard fired on the US warship Chesapeake. 3 Americans were killed and 4 others were taken captive and impressed into the British navy.

• This aroused American anger and anti-British feeling ran high, and many Americans demanded war. Jefferson, however, resorted to diplomacy and economic pressure as his response to the crisis.

Embargo Act of 1807: As an alternative to war, Jefferson persuaded the Democratic-Republican majority in Congress to pass the Embargo Act in 1807, which prohibited American merchant ships from sailing to any foreign port.

Since the US was Britain’s largest trading partner, Jefferson hoped the British would stop violating the rights of neutral nations rather than lose US trade.

• However, the embargo backfired and brought on greater economic hardship for the US than to Britain. The British were determined to control the seas at all costs, and they had little difficulty substituting supplies from South America for US goods.

• The embargo’s effect on the US economy was devastating, especially for merchant marine and shipbuilders of New England. It was so bad that New England states developed a movement to secede from the US

Recognizing the embargo failed miserably, Jefferson repealed it in 1809 but even after the repeal, US ships could trade legally with all nations except Britain and France.

Madison’s Presidency

Like Jefferson, Madison attempted a combination of diplomacy and economic pressure to deal with the Napoleonic Wars. Unlike Jefferson, he allowed the US to go to war.

Non-Intercourse Act of 1809: After the repeal of Jefferson’s Embargo Act of 1807, Madison hoped to end economic hardship while maintain US rights as a neutral nation. The Non-Intercourse Act of 1809 provided that Americans could now trade with all nations except Britain and France.

Macon’s Bill No. 2 (1810): Economic hardships continued into 1810. Nathaniel Macon, Congress member, introduced a bill that restored US trade with Britain and France, however, if either Britain or France formally agreed to respect US neutral rights at sea, then the US would prohibit trade with that nation’s rule.

Napoleon’s Deception: Upon hearing of Congress’ action, Napoleon announced his intention of revoking the decrees that had violated US neutral rights. Taking Napoleon’s word, Madison carried out the terms of Macon’s Bill No. 2 by embargoing US trade with Britain in 1811. However, he realized that Napoleon had no intention of fulfilling his promise as the French continued to seize American ships.

War of 1812

Causes of the War: From US POV, the pressures leading to war came from: continued violation of US neutral rights at sea and troubles with British on the western frontier.

• Impressment remained a big issue for America. British ships would take American crew as their prisoners, impressing them into the service of the Royal Navy. It violated American neutrality.

• Orders in Council forbade neutral ships from trading with Britain’s enemies, and France retaliated by stating that all ships trading with Britain or following Orders would be seized. As a result, American ships were also seized by the French. Both violated US sovereignty and free trade rights.

• During this time, Britain and France were engaged in a series of wars, known as the Napoleonic Wars, that lasted from the late 18th century to the early 19th century. These wars were fought for a variety of reasons, including territorial and economic disputes, and involved a number of countries.

• Napoleon Bonaparte, the French general and statesman who rose to power after the French Revolution, had ambitious territorial goals and sought to expand the French Empire. He sought to conquer and annex new territories, including in Europe and in other parts of the world, which led to conflicts with other powers.

• To support its war effort against France, Britain needed a large and well-trained navy. To meet this need, the British navy impressed sailors from a variety of sources, including from other countries.

The Chesapeake affair occurred in 1807 when a British warship, the Leopard, attacked an American warship, the Chesapeake. With three sailors killed and four others forced into the British navy, Americans demanded war, but Jefferson responded with “peaceful coercion: Basically, the idea was that if the two countries refused to respect the rights of the neutral US, the US would keep its ships at home.

Jefferson’s answer was The Embargo Act, which prohibited all American overseas trade.

• Jefferson wanted economic pressure to force British to change, but this plan backfired. It had worked to an extent, but Britain found new sources instead. It actually led to disaster for America, backfiring on Jefferson.

The British had little difficulty substituting supplies from the US with ones from South America. The effect on the American economy was devastating, especially for shipbuilders in New England. Jefferson would call for its repeal in the final days of his presidency.

War of 1812 Summary: America successfully negotiated with Britain on impressment, but it took too long for the news to reach the US. Congress had already declared war by the time the news reached them. Major causes of the War of 1812 (which actually lasted until 1814) were:

• Impressment and trade on the seas

• Western frontier pressures where the British were encouraging Natives to attack Americans.

• War Hawks in Congress, who were young Democratic-Republicans from frontier states and were eager with war with Britain. They were led by Henry Clay and John Calhoun.

America failed to invade British Canada, and Britain blocked the American coast, which hurt the American economy. Britain was successful in invading Maryland. In Baltimore, at the famous Battle of Fort McHenry, Francis Scott Key penned the words of the Star Spangled Banner as the fort held out against the bombardment overnight.

The British then marched into the capital with little opposition. In response to Americans burning the Canadian capital of York (Toronto), the British burned the White House and Capitol building.

Andrew Jackson defeated the British in the Battle of New Orleans. The peace treaty had already been negotiated, but due to the speed of communication, it was not realized that the war was already over. Jackson became a national hero.

The Treaty of Ghent, ending the war, did the following:

• Halted the fighting

• Returned all conquered territory to the prewar areas

• Recognized prewar borders of the US and Canada.

So basically, nothing was won out of the war but the war did show that America was competent enough, allowing European nations to take America more seriously. Both Jackson and Harrison became national heroes due to their leadership roles in the military. It also stimulated manufacturing in America.

Hartford Convention

In 1814, a group of New England Federalists gathered in Hartford, Connecticut. The purpose of the convention was to address the grievances of the Federalist Party, which was the dominant political party in New England at the time, and to consider the options available to the party in the face of what it saw as the deteriorating political and economic situation in the United States.

They recommended the following changes to the Constitution:

• Allow secession of the states (the delegates later turned this down)

• Require a ⅔ majority of Congress to declare war

• New procedures on admitting new states. 

However, shortly after the convention, news spread of Jackson’s victory and the end of the war, which stamped the Federalists as unpatriotic and further weakened them.

Monroe Doctrine

The Monroe Doctrine was a foreign policy statement issued by President James Monroe in 1823.

There were three key principles of the Monroe Doctrine:

• America would stay out of European wars unless directly impacted

• European nations would not make any new colonies or attempt to take back control over former colonies in the Americas

• America would count any European colonization attempt in the Western Hemisphere to be an “unfriendly act.”

During this period, the United States was faced with a number of challenges, including the threat of European interference in its affairs and the potential for renewed conflict with Great Britain.

In order to address these challenges and to assert its independence, the United States began to develop a foreign policy that was designed to protect its interests and to promote its own expansion. As part of this effort, the United States began to assert itself as a regional power and to resist European efforts to extend their control over the Western Hemisphere.

4.5: Market Revolution

The Industrial Revolution in Britain introduced machines that could make thread and fabric more efficiently, causing a boom in textile production/markets. The growth of the textile industry in Britain caused increased demand for cotton from the US, as the US was a major producer of cotton, and the demand for this commodity from Britain and other countries helped spur the growth of the cotton industry in the US.

• The Industrial Revolution reached the US in the early 19th century and led to the development of new technologies and manufacturing processes that increased the efficiency and output of industry, which led to the growth of large-scale enterprises and the emergence of a market economy in which production and exchange of goods were guided by the principles of supply and demand.

• Americans started to move from self-sufficient agriculture to manufacturing goods for sale. Entrepreneurs played a key role in driving this economic transformation as the Industrial Revolution would allow them to embrace new technologies and business models to seek out new markets and opportunities for expansion.

Technological Advancements:

• Textile Machinery: The power loom and other textile machinery such as the cotton gin, increased the efficiency of textile industry and led to the growth of large-scale factories

• Steam engines: revolutionized transportation and industry by making it possible to power ships, trains, & factories/mills with steam power instead of water/other sources of power, making it easier to produce and process cotton on a large scale → contributed to the growth of the cotton industry

• Interchangeable parts: made it possible to mass-produce goods more efficiently and at a lower cost

• Telegraph: patented by Samuel Morse, revolutionized communication by making it possible to send messages across long distances almost instantaneously; this allowed news and information to travel faster than before

• Agricultural inventions: helped increase the efficiency & productivity of agriculture such as the McCormick reaper (harvested grain faster and made wheat cheaper) and the cotton gin, which increased the efficiency of producing cotton

Transportation: The United States government took several steps to support the development of transportation infrastructure, including roads, canals, and railroads. This was done through legislation and judicial systems that provided funding and legal frameworks for the construction and operation of these transportation networks.

• The development of transportation networks played a key role in extending and enlarging markets and fostering regional interdependence.

• By making it easier to transport goods and people from one place to another, these networks helped to connect different regions of the country and facilitated the growth of commerce and industry.

4.6: Effects of the Market Revolution on Society & Culture

Specialization on the farm, growth of cities and industrialization and the development of modern capitalism meant the end of self-sufficient farming. 

Women: As American society became more industrialized, women’s work/family life changed for women as they were not working next to their husbands on farms anymore

• Women started looking for employment usually within domestic jobs or teaching or working in factories through the Lowell System was also introduced which hired young, single women to work in factories 

• As men moved from the farms in rural areas to the cities where there were more economic opportunities for jobs due to urbanization/industrialization, women started to take the role of the sole moral leader within the household which led to the idea of the cult of domesticity: the idealized view of women as moral leaders within the household; this idea pressured women to prioritize their roles as wives/mothers as they were expected to be moral leaders/caretakers within the private sphere while men were seen as providers and leaders

Economic/Social Mobility: The Industrial Revolution improved standards of living for most people but the gap between the very wealthy and poor increased

• The rise of factory production and the growth of cities led to the growth of a new working class (factory workers & urban dwellers) → led to the development of wage labor and trade unions

Culture: Industrialization and the rise of manufacturing/mass production led to a more capitalistic consumer culture as Americans started purchasing American goods which helped create a new middle class. The new middle class was composed of merchants, manufacturers, and professionals who had more disposable income and more leisure time

Population Growth/Change:
- Immigration grew due to:

1) the development of inexpensive and efficient ocean transportation

2) famine & revolution in Europe which led to people immigrating to the US for a better life

3) the growing idea/reputation of the US offering economic opportunities and political freedom → immigrant strengthened the US economy by providing both a steady stream of inexpensive labor and an increased demand for mass-produced goods

• Urbanization grew as Americans from rural areas moved to cities in search of better job opportunities and better living conditions → as a result of rapid urbanization/population growth led to overcrowding and poor, as slums were often cramped & unsanitary; lack of proper sanitation led to the spread of infectious diseases and crime rates were high; many people often lived in poverty

Organized Labor: Industrialization meant that a large number of people who worked as farmers/artisans started working in factories earning wages; Problems such as low pay, long hours, unsafe working conditions led urban workers to organize unions as a way to protect their workers’ rights/interests

Commonwealth vs Hunt: Massachusetts Supreme Court ruled that workers could negotiate labor contracts with their employers which led to some Northern state legislatures to pass laws that established a ten-hour workday for industrial workers

• Improvements for workers were still limited due to 1) periodic depressions; 2) employers/courts that were hostile towards unions; 3) high supply of low wage immigrant labor

4.7: Expanding Democracy

Democracy started to expand into what became known as the “era of the common man” as the idea of equality for all White males would (in theory) allow young men from humble backgrounds to rise as far as they could based on his talent and ability aka the “self-made man”

• Universal Male Suffrage: property requirements for voting were lifted in many states, allowing any white man to vote regardless his wealth & property ownership/social class & religion → increased the number of people who would participate in the political process; women/African Americans were not included

• Political Party Nominating Conventions: In the past, candidates for office were nominated by either state legislatures or a “King Caucus”, a closed-door meeting of a political party’s leaders in Congress meaning common citizens had no opportunity to participate. By the 1830s, however, these would be replaced by party nominating conventions where party candidates & voters could gather to nominate a party’s candidate; this method was more open to popular participation aka more democratic

• Popular Election of the President: All states (except South Carolina) adopted the measure of allowing voters to choose their state’s electors in the electoral college via majority popular vote instead of state legislatures choosing

  • Helped make the presidential election process more democratic and representative of the will of the people

• More Elected Offices: more state & local officials were elected to office instead of being appointed which gave voters more voice in their government and increased their interest in participating in elections

• Popular Campaigning: candidates for office direct their campaigns towards the interests/prejudices of the common people and politics became a form of local entertainment but new campaign techniques would often resort to personal attacks & ignore the issues to appeal to the masses

• Spoils System: Democratic-Republicans believed in appointing people to federal jobs based on their loyalty to the Democratic Party; any previous holder of office who wasn’t a democrat was fired and replaced with a loyal Democrat

• Rotation in office: Jackson believed in a system of rotation in office; by limiting a person to 1 term in office, he could then appoint some other deserving democrat in their place; Jackson defended this by stating that “no man has any more intrinsic claim to office than another”

  • Both the spoils system and rotation of officeholders affirmed the democratic ideal that one man was as good as another and that ordinary Americans were capable of hold any government position → these beliefs helped build a strong two party system.

4.8: Jackson and Federal Power

Prior to his presidency, Andrew Jackson gained military fame as a general in the War of 1812 and his victory at the Battle of New Orleans.

Election of 1824: was highly controversial and led to the election of John Quincy Adams as president

• None of the running candidates received the majority of electoral college votes needed to win the election so the House of Representatives had to choose the president between the top 3 candidates: Andrew Jackson, John Quincy Adams & William Crawford

• Andrew Jackson won the most popular and electoral votes but he was outmaneuvered by the House of Reps by his opponents as Henry Clay used his influence in the House to provide John Quincy Adams with enough votes to win the election.

• When President Adams appointed Henry Clay as his secretary of state, Jackson claimed that Clay and Adams had a corrupt bargain, meaning that they made a secret deal to make Clay the Secretary of State while giving his support to Adams → led to Jackson being infuriated and the election was a main factor in his campaign for the 1828 election  

• This election marked the end of the Era of Good Feelings and the beginning of the Second Party System (Democrats vs Whigs)

Presidency of John Quincy Adams: During Adams’ presidency, he used federal funds for internal improvements, aided manufacturing, focused on public education, and most states eased voting requirements

• Jacksonians viewed these as violations of the constitution and a waste of money

• The expansion of suffrage meant that candidates had to appeal to the common American → Jackson took advantage of this by painting himself as a “common man” and Adams as an elitist in his 1828 campaign

• Most significantly, in 1828, Congress passed a new tariff law, which satisfied northern manufacturers but alienated Southern planters and Southerners denounced it as a “tariff of abominations”

Election (Revolution) of 1828: Jackson ran against Adams, who sought reelection in 1828. The campaign was marked by mudslinging tactics from both sides as Jacksonians accused Adams of being corrupt & elitist and smeared the president by accusing his wife of being born out of wedlock. Adams’ supporters retaliated by portray Jackson as an uneducated & dangerous demagogue and accusing Jackson’s wife of adultery.

• The mudslinging campaign created more interest in voters and turnout soared

• Jackson won a decisive victory through a majority of popular votes as his reputation as a war hero and common man of the Western Frontier helped influence his victory →

  • Jackson’s election marked a turning point in American politics as it was the 1st time a president had been elected by majority popular vote, marked the emergence of the Democratic Party, and set the stage for a new era of politics marked by increased voter participation and political activism from the common people because of the expansion of suffrage.

Jackson’s Presidency

Peggy Eaton Affair: The wife of Jackson’s secretary of war, Peggy O’Neale Eaton, was the target of malicious gossip by other cabinet wives, much as Jackson’s recently deceased wife had been in the 1828 campaign.

When Jackson tried to force the cabinet wives to accept Peggy Eaton socially, most of the cabinet resigned. This controversy contributed to the resignation of Jackson’s VP, John C. Calhoun, a year later. For remaining loyal during this crisis, Martin Van Buren was chosen as VP for Jackson’s 2nd term.

Tariff of Abominations: (aka Tariff of 1828) - a series of tariffs passed by the US Congress under Quincy Adams, that was intended to protect American industry from foreign competition by raising the average rate of taxes on imported goods by 20%

• Benefitted Northern manufacturers and many states were angered by this as it hurt Southern plantation owners the most bc the tariff increased the prices that Southern farmers paid for manufactured goods that they depended on and threatened to undermine their foreign markets while protecting Northern manufacturers

• Caused a sectional divide between the North and the South

• Jackson’s own VP, John C Calhoun

Nullification Crisis: Jackson favored states rights but not disunion - In 1828, South Carolina declared the increased tariff of 1828 (aka the Tariff of Abominations to be unconstitutional. In doing so, it affirmed John C. Calhoun’s nullification theory, where each state had the right to decide whether to obey a federal law or to declare it null and void (of no effect).

This led to the Webster-Hayne Debate, a dramatic exchange of speeches between Senator David Webster of Massachusetts and Roberty Hayne of South Carolina.

• Hayne argued for the rights of states. In response, Webster attacked the idea that any state could defy or leave the Union

Jackson responded saying that the Union must be preserved. In 1832, South Carolina increased tensions by holding a convention to nullify the 1828 tariff and 1832 tariff and the convention passed a resolution forbidding collection of tariffs within the state. Jackson reacted by preparing the military, persuading Congress to pass the Force Bill, which gave him the authority to act against South Carolina and the Proclamation to the People of South Carolina, stating that nullification and disunion were treason.

Jackson opened for compromise by suggesting that Congress lower the tariff. South Carolina postponed nullification and later rescinded it after Congress enacted a new tariff along the lines suggested by the president, along with some adjustments that appealed to Northern industrialists.

Indian Removal Act (1830): Jackson’s concept of democracy did not extend to American Indians. Jackson sympathized with land-hungry citizens who were impatient to take over lands held by American Indians. Jackson thought the most humane solution was to compel the American Indians to leave their traditional homelands and resettle west of the Mississippi. In 1830, he signed into the law the Indian Removal Act, which forced the resettlement of many thousands of American Indians.

By 1835, most eastern tribes had reluctantly complied and move west. Most politicians supported the Indian Removal Act. Georgia and other states passed laws that required the Cherokees to migrate to the West. When the Cherokees challenged Georgia in the courts, the Supreme Court ruled in Cherokee Nation v. Georgia (1831), that Cherokees were not a foreign nation with the right to sue in a federal court. But in a second case, Worcester v. Georgia (1832), the court ruled that the laws of Georgi had no force within the Cherokee territory.

In this class between state laws and federal courts, Jackson sided with the states. The Court was powerless to enforce the decision without the President’s support.

• Trail of Tears: In 1838, after Jackson left office, the US Army force 15,000 Cherokees to leave Georgia, causing the Trail of Tears as the the migration westward caused 4000 Cherokee deaths

The National Bank Battle:

4.9: Development of American Culture

The expansion of the US due to the Louisiana Purchase and industrialization led to the population growing rapidly as European immigrants poured in and enthusiasm for westward expansion → this brought about a distinct American culture with European influences and regional cultures which was nationalistic in nature.

• Basic ideas and ideals of nationalism & patriotism would dominate most of the 19th century, as a new national culture and American nationalism would be infused in literature, art & architecture of the period.

• American ideals of democracy, such as self-government & individual liberties ran deep as young nationalistic Americans were excited about the prospects of westward expansion and believed they had grown up in an era of prosperity. 

• European Enlightenment ideals emphasized rationalism, order, balance, progress, inward intuition, feelings, individual heroism, and nature. → played a significant role in shaping new national culture

  • Liberal ideas from Europe such as democracy, individual rights, and equality were brought to America by immigrants and American travelers. These ideas were embraced by American writers, thinkers, and artists who began to incorporate them into their work

Regional culture: The different regions of the United States had their own distinct cultures, and these cultures blended to form a new national culture. 

• For example, the culture of the South was heavily influenced by the legacy of slavery and the plantation system, while the culture of the North was shaped by the rise of industry and urbanization.

Romanticism emphasized emotion, imagination, the beauty of nature and believed in the perfection of humanity and that individuals could reach a higher level of understanding and morality through the power of imagination & emotion

• Hudson River School, the first American school of art, emphasized the power & beauty of nature; often depicted the fear of westward expansion destroying nature

Transcendentalism was a form of American philosophy that emphasized the importance of intuition & spiritual connection to the divine; this philosophy rejected traditional Puritan beliefs and promoted individualism and self-sufficiency; 

• argued for a mystical & intuitive way of thinking as a means for discovering one’s inner self & looking for the essence of God in nature.

• Challenged the materialism of American society by suggesting that artistic expression was more important than the pursuit of wealth

• Ralph Waldo Emerson: key Transcendentalist writer; wrote extensively on the philosophy/principles of Transcendentalism and writings expressed the individualistic/nationalistic spirit of Americans by urging them not to imitate European culture but to create a distinctive American culture; argued for self-reliance, independent thinking

  • His influential essay, Self Reliance, championed the idea that individuals should trust their own intuition and inner guidance rather than relying on external authority

• Henry David Thoreau: another prominent Transcendentalist writer

  • Walden (1854): detailed his experiences living in the woods and his beliefs in simplicity & self-sufficiency

  • On Civil Disobedience: Thoreau was a proponent of civil disobedience, the idea that individuals have a moral duty to disobey unjust laws

Communal Experiments: the idea of creating an ideal community aka utopia by withdrawing from conventional society and starting fresh was not a new concept but during the antebellum period there were a significant # of communal living experiments with different groups attempting to create their own utopian communities.

• Shakers: one of the earliest religious communal movements & had about 6000 members in various communities

  • Shakers held property in common and separated men and women (forbidding marriage/sexual relations)

Arts & Literature: 

• Painting: genre painting portrayed everyday life of ordinary people doing ordinary things became popular (emphasis on the common man)

• Architecture: Inspired by the democracy of classical Athens, American architecture adapted Greek style to glorify the democratic spirit of the republic

• Literature: In addition to transcendentalist authors, other writers helped create a literature that incorporated Romantic concepts and American values of democracy & individual liberty

4.10: Second Great Awakening

• Religious revival movement that occurred during the 19th century (began around 1790, peaked in the 1820s & 1830s, ended in late 1840s

• Movement was characterized by a renewed interest in Christianity (reassertion of Puritan teachings of original sin and predestination) and an increase in church membership, especially with Baptists & Methodists

• Many new religious denominatons were formed during this time and the influence of establish churches declined

Causes of Religious Reform:

• Growing emphasis on democracy and individualism that influenced politics and art also affected how people viewed religion; worshippers were more attracted to services that were more participatory and less formal

• Rational approach to religion (favored by Deists & Unitarians) prompted a reaction toward more emotional expressions of beliefs in worship services

• Market revolution caused people to fear that growing industrialization and commercialization were leading to increased greed and sin

• Disruptions caused by the market revolution and the mobility of people led them to look for worship settings that were outside formal churches based in urban areas

Changes in Beliefs: As people started to believe in that ordinary people should have a say in the government, they applied this idea to churches and ministers now had to appeal to those values

• Puritan teaching of original sin & predestination had been rejected by believers in more liberal & forgiving doctrines such as the Unitarian Church

• Emotional religious experience became important because the Market Revolution caused their work and economic relationships to become less personal

  • Original sin: the doctrine that holds that human nature has been morally/ethnically corrupted due to disobedience of Adam & Eve; holds that every person born into the world is tainted and people were powerless to rehabilitate themselves unless rescued by God

  • Predestination: the idea of God being in control of all that happens (God controls everyone’s destiny and your destiny is already predetermined by God)

Charles Grandison Finney, the best-known preacher of the Second Great Awakening, taught that sin was voluntary. He rejected the traditional Calvinist doctrine of predestination and believed everyone had the power to become perfect and free of sin. This emphasis on human choice and responsibility, rather than divine predestination, helped to make Finney's preaching particularly appealing to people who were seeking greater control over their own spiritual destinies.

4.11: Age of Reform

Temperance

The American Temperance Society was established in 1826 to combat the drinking problems of men. It called for total abstinence from alcohol, and the effects showed the success of this movement. Within two decades, the consumption of alcohol dropped by more than half.

Temperance was a social and political movement that was largely driven by religious and moral concerns about the effects of alcohol on individuals and society. Proponents of the temperance movement argued that alcohol consumption led to a range of social ills, including poverty, crime, domestic violence, and disease, and they advocated for a variety of measures to reduce or eliminate the consumption of alcohol.

Prisons & Mental Health

Dorothea Dix was an American social reformer, teacher, writer, and activist who worked to improve the treatment of the mentally ill during the 19th century. In the early 1840s, Dix was shocked by the conditions she saw in mental hospitals, which were often overcrowded, filthy, and abusive, and she began to advocate for reform. Dix traveled extensively throughout the United States and Europe on a cross-country crusade, gathering evidence and raising awareness about the mistreatment of the mentally ill. She used this evidence to lobby state legislatures for the establishment of more humane mental hospitals, and she was successful in helping to establish 32 new facilities throughout the United States and Canada.

Pennsylvania took the lead in prison reform, building new prisons called penitentiaries to take the place of crude jails. One of the key figures in Pennsylvania's prison reform movement was Benjamin Rush, a prominent physician and social reformer. Rush argued that the harsh and inhumane conditions in prisons were counterproductive, and he advocated for a more humane approach to punishment as a method of reducing recidivism. He argued that prisoners should be treated with kindness and given the opportunity to reform and rehabilitate themselves. Prison reform reflected a major doctrine of the asylum movement: structure and discipline would bring about moral reform.

Public Schools

Horace Mann focused on the education of children and is often credited as the "father of American public education." He demanded compulsory attendance, a longer school year, and more teacher preparation, arguing that the government had a responsibility to provide education to all citizens regardless of their social or economic standing. Public schools received funding from the government through tax-dollar support.

People saw public schools as a way to decrease the uneducated population, assimilate child immigrants, and implement social progress. Part of this vision included indoctrinating children with morals. Textbooks created by William Holmes McGuffey became widely used in elementary schools to standardize curriculum. The morals within these textbooks allowed children to learn about important values.

Women’s Rights

Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Lucretia Mott led the Seneca Falls Convention on women’s rights in 1848. During the convention, attended by both men and women, a series of speeches and discussions were held on a wide range of issues related to women's rights, including suffrage (the right to vote), property rights, education, and employment. The convention also adopted a new document called the "Declaration of Sentiments," which was modeled on the Declaration of Independence and outlined the grievances of women and their demands for equal rights and opportunities.

Some colleges, such as Mount Holyoke College, allowed women to be admitted. It would be the first time women would have access to further education.

Abolition

The Second Great Awakening was marked by a renewed focus on personal piety and a belief in the power of individual conversion. This emphasis on personal responsibility and moral reform led many people to become more committed to social justice causes, including the abolition of slavery.

During the Second Great Awakening, many religious leaders and ordinary people became involved in the abolition movement, and the movement drew inspiration and support from the ideas and values of the Awakening. Many abolitionists saw the institution of slavery as a sin and a violation of Christian principles, and they argued that it was the duty of Christians to work to end the institution.

Religious revivals that took place during the Awakening were held in camp meetings and other outdoor gatherings, which provided a forum for discussion and activism. These gatherings were often attended by large numbers of people, including many who were sympathetic to the abolition cause, and they provided a platform for abolitionists to spread their message and recruit supporters.

The American Colonization Society (ACS) was a group founded in 1816 with the goal of relocating free African Americans from the United States to the West African coast, particularly to a settlement in Monrovia, Liberia. The ACS was motivated by a belief that free African Americans would be better able to thrive in Africa than in the United States, where they faced significant discrimination and segregation. Moreover, they believed that emigration to Africa would help reduce racial tensions and promote harmony.

However, the ACS faced significant challenges in its efforts to relocate African Americans to Africa. Many African Americans were unwilling to leave the United States, and the ACS struggled to find funding and support for its efforts, which made the movement impractical.

William Lloyd Garrison started an abolitionist newspaper, The Liberator, calling for an end to slavery and for free states to secede from the slave states. The newspaper was widely read and had a significant impact on public opinion, making it a notable platform for Garrison and other abolitionists to promote their ideas and mobilize support for their cause. Because the Constitution supported slavery. Garrison burned a copy on the Fourth of July.

In addition to journalistic endeavors, William Lloyd Garrison went on to found the American Anti-Slavery Society (AAS). The AAS worked to build support for the abolition of slavery through a variety of means, including public lectures, publications, grassroots organizing, and a network of safe houses for slaves trying to escape to freedom. They used these tools to educate the public about the evils of slavery and to convince people to take action against the institution.

One of the key strategies of the AAS was to lobby politicians and lawmakers to pass legislation that would end slavery. The organization also worked to support abolitionist candidates for public office, and it sought to influence public opinion.

Frederick Douglass had first-hand experience as a former slave. Douglass was a gifted orator and writer, and he used his skills to speak out against slavery and advocate for the rights of African Americans. He traveled extensively, giving lectures and organizing campaigns to promote the abolition of slavery and the end of racial prejudice, and he published several influential books and essays on the subjects. Douglass was a key member of the AAS.

The Grimke sisters, despite being daughters of a wealthy Southern family in South Carolina, supported the abolition of slavery. Sarah and Angelina Grimke were among the first women to speak out publicly against slavery, and they were among the first to challenge the notion that women were not fit to participate in public life or engage in political activism. The sisters traveled throughout the North, giving lectures to audiences of both men and women. Additionally, they organized campaigns to promote the abolition of slavery, the rights of African Americans, and gender equality.

4.12: African Americans in the Early Republic

Free African Americans

4.13: Southern Society in the Early Republic