Tareq Y. Ismael_ Jacqueline S. Ismael - Government and Politics of the Contemporary Middle East_ Continuity and Change-Routledge (2012)-part-4

Part II: Major Governments and Politics of Turkey

Migration of Turkic People: The Turkic people migrated southwest from Central Asia, influencing the Middle East, parts of Africa, and Europe.
Seljuk Dynasty: Established in 1055 after seizing Baghdad, it ruled a major area of the Islamic world. However, their power declined by the 13th century due to internal weaknesses and Mongol invasions.
Emergence of the Ottoman Empire: Founded in the 13th century, it rose to prominence by conquering Constantinople in 1453 (renamed Istanbul), controlling much of the Middle East until the 20th century.
Formation of Modern Turkey: After WWI, the empire was partitioned, leading to the establishment of the secular Republic of Turkey by nationalists.

Cultural Impact on Anatolia: Turkish migration led to settlement, intermarriage, and the spread of Islam, creating a Turko-Muslim culture. Indigenous populations were allowed to keep their religious practices.
Ghazis and Holy Wars: Turkish chieftains fought in the name of Islam, expanding their control in Anatolia, leading to the foundation of the Ottoman Empire.

Initial Conquests: Prince Osman founded the Ottoman state. Key victories like the Battle of Malazgirt (1071) solidified Turkish control in Anatolia.
Expansion into Europe: The Ottomans crossed into Europe in 1352, capturing key territories, including Adrianople (Edirne).
Centralization and Administration: The empire became highly centralized, but this also fostered corruption and undermined effectiveness.

European Colonialism: By the 18th century, European encroachment diminished Ottoman authority, while internal corruption and autonomy movements emerged.
Capitulations: Agreements with European powers started as trade benefits but evolved into exploitative mechanisms, weakening the economic power of the empire.
Provinces and Nationalism: Non-Turkish populations in the provinces developed nationalist sentiments, challenging central Ottoman control.

Tanzimat Reforms: A series of reforms aimed at modernization were introduced but met with mixed success, often stymied by entrenched conservative military interests.
Young Turks Movement: Emerged as a response to despotism and aimed for reforms, leading to the 1908 constitutional revolution which reinstated parliamentarianism.
Impact of WWI: Turkey's entry alongside Germany led to defeats and the eventual collapse of the empire post-war, culminating in rising Turkish nationalism led by Mustafa Kemal.

Mustafa Kemal Atatürk: Promoted a series of radical reforms emphasizing secularism and westernization. Established Ankara as the capital in 1923.
Cultural Reforms: Focused on language and educational reforms to modernize Turkey and foster national identity.
Abolition of the Caliphate: This marked a significant shift from the Ottoman religious system to a secular national identity.

Political System: Turkey functions as a republic with a separation of powers: legislative, executive, and judiciary. The Grand National Assembly is the main legislative body.
Military Influence: The military has historically intervened in politics to uphold secularism and maintain national unity.
Recent Political Dynamics: The AKP's rise reshaped Turkish politics, attempting to balance Islamic values with secular governance while engaging with EU accession talks.

Early Economic Policies: The economic congress of 1923 aimed at revitalizing a war-torn economy reliant on agriculture, with various degrees of state intervention in the economy.
Liberalization Efforts: From the 1980s onward, significant economic problems including hyperinflation and high debts led to structural reforms, primarily influenced by the IMF.
Recent Economic Improvements: Under the AKP, the economy exhibited growth while trying to maintain social services, although issues remain lingering like income inequality and dependency on foreign investment.

EU and NATO Relations: Turkey's position as a bridge between East and West influences its foreign policy with significant ties to both the EU and the US.
Regional Issues: Accusations of human rights abuses and its Kurdish population's aspirations impact Turkey's relations with its neighbors and international bodies.
Contemporary Diplomatic Challenges: The fluctuating relations due to historical grievances and recent military operations against PKK reflected the ongoing complexities in Turkish foreign policy.