History Midterm

 Ancient Greece

• Ancient Greece was primarily a mountainous peninsula protruding into the Mediterranean. 

• Three main geographical features influenced the region: sea, land, and climate.

•  The Aegean, Ionian, and Black Seas were vital in trade and transportation.

•  Sea travel was essential as it connected Greece with other societies, and trade was significant because Greece had limited natural resources.

• Rugged Mountains covered three-fourths of Ancient Greece 

led to a lack of farmland

            Influenced Greek political life as many small independent communities were formed

                                                                                                                                                 9/4/24

• Mountains made transportation difficult, therefore, the sea was the most important means of transportation.

• Greece had a varied, moderate climate that supported an outdoor lifestyle.

• Most time was spent at outdoor public events.

• Mycenaens: People who settled on the Greek mainland around 2,000 BCE

Their leading city was Mycenae, with a defensive wall over 20 feet thick.

Warrior king ruled the villages and farms.

• Myceneans came into contact with the Minoans.

• The Mycenaeans adopted the Minoan system of writing: and also influenced religious practices, art, politics, and literature.

• The Trojan War: A war in the 1200s where the Mycenaeans fought against Troy, a trading city located in Anatolia

• Mycenaen culture collapses and a new group, the Dorians, takes control.

• Dorians are far less advanced; the economy collapses and trade almost stops. The art of writing also is lost (no written records for 400 years) “Greek Dark Age”

• Due to the lack of writing, Greeks tell stories through spoken word.

• Homer: blind storytelling

Composed Epics (narrative poems celebrating heroic deeds) the Illiad and the Odyssey are the most well-known.

• Myths: traditional stories about the Greek gods.

Human qualities (love, hate, jealousy) are given to the gods.

Used to explain nature

• Polis (City-stae): The fundamental political unit in ancient Greece.

Made up of city and surrounding countryside (villages)

• Acropolis: Fortified hilltop

Citizens gathered to discuss city government.

• Political Structure:

Monarchy: Government ruled by a single person (king)

Aristocracy: Government ruled by a small group of noble, landowning families

Oligarchy: Government ruled by a few powerful people

Democracy: Government ruled by the citizens

Tyrant: A powerful individual who ran the government with the support of the common people

• Citizens participate directly in political decision-making.

• Draco: nobleman who took power in 621 BCE

Developed a legal code based on equality under the law (Rich or Poor)

Criminals are dealt with harshly; the death penalty

Debt Slavery: Debtors worked as slaves to repay debts.

• Solon: came to power in 594 BCE

Outlawed debt slavery

Created four social classes (according to wealth) for Athenian citizens

Members of the top three classes could hold political office

All citizens could participate in the assembly

• Cleisthenes: introduced further reforms.

Organized citizens by where they lived rather than wealth

Allowed citizens to submit laws for debate and passage

Council of 500: The body proposed laws and counseled the assembly; members were chosen at random

• Limited democracy (who participates)

Citizenship was restricted to a small number of Athenian

Only free adult males

Women, slaves, and foreigners were excluded from citizenship

• Only sons of wealthy families could have a formal education

Started at age 7; preparation for a good citizen

Reading, grammar, poetry, history, math, and music

Logic, public speaking, and athletics

Older boys went to military school

• Girls were educated at home by their mothers and other female members of the household.

Child-rearing, weaving cloth, preparing meals, and managing the household

Preparation to be good wives and mothers

• Sparta was in southern Greece; cut off from most other city-states

Sparta conquered the Messenians in 725 BCE and made them their helots

Helots: peasant forced to stay on the land they worked

Revolt by the Helots which Sparta barely put down 

• Government

Assembly: All citizens and elected officials

Council of Elders: 30 older citizens; proposed laws which the assembly voted

Older citizens were selected because they were wiser

Five elected officials: carried out the laws (education, court cases, etc;)

Two kings ruled over the military forces.

• Social Order

Citizens: Descendants of original inhabitants of the region

Example: Ruling families who owned the land

Noncitizens who were free: worked in commerce and industry

Helots: worked the fields or as a house servant

• The most powerful army in Greece

All forms of individual expression are discouraged

Did not value arts, literature, or other artistic pursuits

Valued duty, strength, and discipline

• Men served in the army until they were 60 years old

Military training is a daily occurrence

Boys moved into army barracks at age 7 and stayed until age 30

Days spent marching, exercising, and fighting

• Girls received some military training.

Taught to put service to Sparta above all else

More freedom in running the family estates when the men were in active military service

The Persian War                                           9/9/24

The Persian Wars

• During Dorian Age (Dark Age):

Only the  rich served in armies

Rich could afford spears, shields, breastplates, and chariots

• Iron replaces bronze

Harder than bronze

Cheaper and more common

• New army

Rich, merchants, artisans, and small landowners

This led to more middle-class citizens in the army

Phalanx: a military formation of foot soldiers armed with spears and shields

Allowed Persia to be the most powerful fighting force in the ancient world

Battle of Marathon

• At this time there were the Greek and Persian Empire

The Persians encroached on the Greeks and took Ionia

The Persians wanted it because of the high amount of trade there

Athens sends ships and soldiers to help the Ionians

They did not want the Persians to keep going

Darius the Great defeats the Greeks; and vows to destroy Athens

This is because the Athenians helped Ionia in the battle

• Battle of Marathon

25,000 Persians vs. 10,000 Athenians

The Athenians won because of the Phalanx

• Pheidippides

He ran from Marathon to Athens

It was about 26 miles

Where did the Marathon get its name from

Athens defended the city against the Persian Fleet

• Thermopylae and Salamis

10 years later, Xerxes (Darius the Great’s son) recommits troops to destroy Athens

City-states are divided on who to support

Do not want to be Persia’s enemy or be on the losing side (Athens)

Narrow Pass at Thermopylae

7,000 Greeks blocked his way

Advance stopped, but the traitor helped the Persians

300 Spartans sacrificed their lives while other Greeks retreated 

The Athenians would rather fight at sea than in the city of Athens

Athenians positioned in narrow channels near the island of Salamis

Athens burns Persia’s boats; the smaller Greek fleet defeats the Persians

City-states formed the Delian League to protect against the Persians

Pressed continued war against Persia

Eventually drove the Persians from their territories

• Consequences of the Persian War

The Athenians became much more confident

Athens emerges as the leader of the Delian League

Over 200 city-states

Athens begins to control other league members

Sometimes militarily

City-states become provinces of the Athenian empire

Golden Age                                           9/17/24

• From 477 to 431 BCE, Athens experienced a growth in intellectual and artistic learning. 

Referred to as the Golden Age of Athens

Drama, sculpture, poetry, philosophy, architecture, and science all reached new heights.

• Pericles led Athens through most of this golden age

Skillful politician, an inspiring speaker, and a respected general

• Pericles’ three goals

1. To strengthen Athenian democracy

2. To hold and strengthen the empire

3. To glorify Athens

• Strengthened Athenian democracy by paying government workers as in the past only wealthy people could afford to hold office.

Allowed Athens to become one of the most democratic governments in history

• Direct democracy- a form of government in which citizens rule directly and not through representatives. Was an important part of Pericles’ democracy.

• The Athenian empire was strengthened by Pericles getting money from the Delian League and using it to improve Athens’ navy. Without the ability to control the waterways, they would have no way to trade for overseas materials.

• Pericles also used money from the Delain League to beautify Athens. He persuaded the Assembly to use the money on gold, ivory, and marble. The rest of the money went to the artists, architects, and workers who made everything. 

• The Parthenon was the major architectural project he used to glorify Athens. 

• Athenian art became the standard of classical art to this day. 

                                                                                                               9/18/24

Drama and History

• The Greeks were the first to build theaters in the west

Expression of civic pride and was a tribute to the gods

• There were two kinds of dramas, tragedies and comedies. 

• Tragedies- A serious drama about themes including love, hate, war, and betrayal 

Contained a main character, or tragic hero who usually experiences lost

• Comedy- Contained scenes filled with slapstick situations and cruel humor

Often made fun of politics, and respected people and ideas at the time

• The greatest historian from the classical age was Thucydides.

Athenians and Sparta go to War.

• As Athens, grew Sparta started to view it with hostility

Eventually, Sparta declared war on Athens

This marked the beginning of the Peloponnesian War

• When the Peloponnesian War started, Athens had a stronger navy but Sparta had a stronger army.

Sparta’s location also did not allow it to be invaded by sea easily.

• A deadly plague wiped out ⅓ of the population of Athens

Killed Pericles

• Athen struggled throughout the war on land and eventually surrendered to Sparta.

This resulted in Philosophers questioning the belief of Athens.

• Philosophers- a lover of wisdom

• Socrates- believed that absolute standards did exist for truth and justice.  Encouraged Greeks to question themselves and their moral character. 

• Plato- He was taught by Socrates. His perfect society was for people to fall into three main categories. Founded a school called the Academy and wrote The Republic

• Aristotle- He was taught by Plato. Questioned the nature of human belief, thought, and knowledge. An early proponent of the creation of scientific inquiry. Taught Alexander the Great

                                                                                                                                        9/30/24

Hellenistic Culture in Alexandria

• Hellenistic- relating to it civilization, language, art, science, and literature of the Greek world from the reign of Alexander the Great to the late second century

• New cities: administrative centers and outposts of Greek culture

• Adoption of Greek patterns and cultures across Egypt, Persia, and India

• Alexandria- the foremost center of commerce and Hellenistic civilization

Strategic sit on the Nile delta supported trade, thriving commerce

• Attractions: Museums and Libraries

Streets lined with statues of Greek gods

Science and Technology

• Astronomy- The museum contained a small observatory

Aristarchus- Sun larger than the Earth. Also, Earth and planets revolve around the sun

Ptolemy said the Earth was at the center of the universe

This view was regarded as correct for the next 14 centuries

Eratosthenes- computed Earth’s circumference quite accurately 

• Math & Physics: Euclid (mathematicians)

The book (Elements) contained 465 geometry propositions and proofs.

Still the basis for courses in geometry 

Archimedes- accurately estimated the value of pi (the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter) 

Philosophy and Art

• Plato & Aristotle are still influential 

Philosophers are now more concerned with how people live their lives

• Two philosophies develop:

Stoicism (stoics) 

Founded by Zeno

People should live virtuous lives in harmony with the will of god or the natural laws that God established for the universe

Human desires, power, and wealth were dangerous distractions that should be checked

• Epicureanism

Founded by Epicurus

Believed gods have no interest in humans ruled the universe

Only real objects were those the five senses perceived

The main goal of humans was to achieve harmony of body and mind

• Sculptures florusihed

Rulers, wealthy merchants, and cities purchased statues to honor gods and commemorate heroes

Colossus of Rhodes: one of the seven wonders of the ancient world

Natural works (more realistic) replace balanced and idealized forms of the classical age

The Republic and the Roman Conquest of Italy  

 5.2.2 The Struggle of Plebian Rights

Republic's Early Years

• The establishment of the Roman Republic marked the beginning of a long struggle for the plebeians, who sought political and social equality.

• The patricians, the elite class, were initially resistant to the demands of the plebeians, leading to a gradual and often reluctant acceptance of their rights.

• Civil war was avoided due to the willingness of patricians to negotiate

 Role of the Concilium Plebis

• The Concilium Plebis, or 'gathering of the plebeians,' was established as an assembly for plebeians to organize and voice their demands.

• This assembly was presided over by tribunes, who were plebeian leaders with the authority to propose legislation and protect plebeian interests.

• Plebiscites, or 'plebeian decrees,' passed by the assembly were binding only on the plebeian community.

The Sacred Status of Tribunes

• Tribunes were granted sacred status (sacrosanctitas) to protect them from harm by patricians, emphasizing their importance in the plebeian struggle.

• The right of tribunes to veto decisions (the word veto means 'I forbid') was a significant power that allowed them to halt unjust actions by patrician consuls and the Senate.

• This power was crucial during times of war, as the patricians were more inclined to concede to plebeian demands to ensure military support.

Economic and Legal Developments

Economic Power of the Plebeians

• Despite their lower social status, plebeians became dominant in trade and commerce, as patricians focused on land ownership and agriculture.

• The economic influence of plebeians increased their bargaining power in political negotiations, as their withdrawal from military service could jeopardize Rome's security.

• This economic shift contributed to the gradual acceptance of plebeian rights by the patricians.

The Code of the Twelve Tables

• In response to plebeian demands for transparency, the unwritten customary laws were codified around 450 BCE into the Code of the Twelve Tables.

• This landmark development marked the first time Roman law was publicly accessible

• The Twelve Tables served as a foundation for future legal developments in Rome and were crucial in the plebeians' quest for equality.

Legal Rights and Reforms

• Over time, plebeians secured fundamental rights, including the right to appeal a death sentence imposed by a consul.

• Marriage between patricians and plebeians was legalized

Political Advancements and Final Achievements

Access to Political Offices

• In 367 BCE, a significant milestone was achieved when one consulship was reserved for a plebeian, marking a shift in political power dynamics.

• By the end of the century, plebeians gained eligibility for other important magistracies, including the praetor (in charge of justice), quaestor (treasurer), and censor (supervisor of public morals).

• These advancements reflected the gradual integration of plebeians into the political framework of Rome.

Conclusion of the Struggle

• The long struggle for equal status ended in 287 BCE when the Concilium Plebis was granted the power to pass laws binding on all citizens

• The evolution of plebeian rights and status laid the groundwork for future democratic principles in Western civilization.

5.2.3 The Conquest of Italy

The Context of Roman Growth

• Rome's rise was not a premeditated plan but a response to external threats.

• Initial conflicts with Etruscans, hill tribes, and Greeks shaped Rome's military and political strategies.

• The belief in defensive warfare justified Rome's expansionist policies.

Key Events in Roman Expansion

• The formation of the Latin League post-Etruscan dominance, which solidified Rome's power in central Italy.

• The catastrophic invasion by the Gauls in 390 BCE, which nearly led to Rome's destruction.

• The subsequent military reforms that transformed the Roman army into a more flexible fighting force.

The Aftermath of the Gallic Invasion

• The rebuilding of Rome and the construction of defensive stone walls.

• Introduction of the maniple system, allowing for greater maneuverability in battle.

Conflicts and Conquests in Italy

The Latin War

• The growing alarm among Latin League members regarding Rome's increasing power.

• The outbreak of war between Rome and the Latin League, leading to Roman victory.

• The imposition of individual treaties on the Latin cities, marking a shift in power dynamics.

The Samnite Wars

• Series of three wars against the Samnites, characterized by fierce battles.

• Roman military tactics and resilience leading to eventual victory over the Samnites.

• The strategic importance of controlling the Samnite territories for further expansion.

The Pyrrhic War

• The Greek king Pyrrhus of Epirus intervenes with war elephants, initially defeating the Romans.

• The heavy losses suffered by both sides, highlighting the cost of warfare.

• Pyrrhus's eventual withdrawal, paving the way for Roman dominance in southern Italy.

Roman Policies and Alliances

Treatment of Conquered Peoples

• Rome's policy of fair treatment towards defeated states fostered loyalty.

• The requirement for allied states to accept Rome's foreign policy and provide military support.

• The absence of tribute and retention of local self-governance encouraged cooperation.

The Path to Roman Citizenship

• The gradual offering of citizenship to loyal allies enhanced Rome's influence.

• The distinction between partial and full citizenship, with full rights being a coveted status.

• The role of citizenship in integrating diverse populations into the Roman state.

5.2.4 The First Punic Wars

Historical Background of Carthage

• Founded as a Phoenician colony in the 9th century BCE, Carthage evolved into a major city-state.

• By the 6th century BCE, it became the dominant commercial power in the western Mediterranean.

• Carthage's wealth was derived from trade, agriculture, and a strong navy that controlled key territories.

Governance and Society in Carthage

• Governed by a commercial oligarchy composed of Semitic descendants of the founders.

• The native population was largely subjugated, serving in agriculture and military roles.

• Reliance on mercenaries to protect the interests of the ruling elite, indicating a complex social structure.

Carthage's Territorial Control

• Controlled northern Africa, Sardinia, Corsica, western Sicily, and parts of Spain.

• The strategic location allowed for extensive trade routes and military advantages.

• The wealth and resources of these territories contributed to Carthage's power.

The Prelude to the First Punic War

Initial Relations Between Rome and Carthage

• Prior to 264 BCE, Rome and Carthage had minimal conflicts of interest.

• The First Punic War was triggered by a conflict involving Italian mercenaries in Messana, Sicily.

• Rome's decision to intervene marked a significant shift in its foreign policy.

The Outbreak of War

• The Roman Senate's approval to send troops to aid the mercenaries escalated tensions.

• The war began in 264 BCE, marking the start of a prolonged conflict between the two powers.

• The term 'Punicus' refers to the Phoenician heritage of Carthage, highlighting the cultural backdrop of the war.

The First Punic War (264-241 BCE)

Key Battles and Strategies

• Roman ground forces successfully captured most of Sicily despite initial naval challenges.

• The Carthaginian navy remained dominant until Rome's rapid fleet construction.

• Introduction of the corvus, a boarding device that transformed naval battles into land engagements.

Consequences of the War

• The war was costly for both sides, with significant losses in ships and manpower.

• Rome's eventual victory in 241 BCE led to the annexation of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica as provinces.

• The establishment of Roman governors to regulate and tax these provinces marked a shift in Roman imperial policy.

Aftermath and Long-term Implications

• The First Punic War set the stage for future conflicts between Rome and Carthage.

• It established Rome as a formidable naval power in the Mediterranean.

• The annexation of territories laid the groundwork for Rome's expansion and dominance in the region.

5.2.5 The War With Hannibal

Carthage's Expansion in Spain

• Following its defeat in the First Punic War (264-241 BCE), Carthage sought to regain power by expanding its territories, particularly in Spain.

• The strategic importance of Spain was highlighted by its rich resources and potential military advantages.

• Carthage's focus on Spain was a direct challenge to Roman interests, as Rome had established alliances with various Spanish cities.

Hannibal's Provocation

• Hannibal Barca, a prominent Carthaginian general, initiated the conflict by attacking Saguntum in 219 BCE, a city allied with Rome.

• This act was seen as a declaration of war, prompting Rome to respond militarily.

• Hannibal's motivations included revenge for Carthage's previous defeat and a desire to expand his own military reputation.

Hannibal's Campaign in Italy

The Crossing of the Alps

• In 218 BCE, Hannibal led an army of approximately 40,000 infantry, 9,000 cavalry, and war elephants across the treacherous Alps.

• The crossing was fraught with challenges, resulting in significant losses; nearly half of his troops and all but one elephant perished.

• This bold maneuver surprised the Romans and showcased Hannibal's strategic ingenuity.

Major Battles and Tactics

• Hannibal achieved remarkable victories at the battles of Trebia (218 BCE), Lake Trasimene (217 BCE), and Cannae (216 BCE).

• At Cannae, Hannibal executed a double envelopment tactic, encircling and annihilating a Roman force of 80,000 with only 50,000 troops.

• Despite these victories, Hannibal chose not to attack Rome directly, focusing instead on weakening Roman alliances and resources.

The Roman Response and Scipio's Strategy

Roman Resilience

• The Roman Senate displayed remarkable determination, refusing to surrender despite significant losses.

• After the defeat at Cannae, Rome implemented a strategy of attrition, avoiding large-scale confrontations with Hannibal.

• The Romans focused on building new alliances and strengthening their military forces.

Scipio Africanus

• Scipio Africanus emerged as a key Roman general, known for his strategic acumen and boldness.

• He launched an invasion of North Africa, forcing Hannibal to return to Carthage to defend his homeland.

• Scipio's victory at the Battle of Zama in 202 BCE marked a turning point in the war, leading to Carthage's defeat.

Aftermath and Consequences

Treaty of 201 BCE

• The war concluded with a harsh treaty that imposed severe penalties on Carthage.

• Carthage was required to pay a substantial indemnity, disarm its military forces, and cede control of Spain to Rome.

• This treaty effectively ended Carthage's status as a major power in the Mediterranean.

Hannibal's Legacy

• After the war, Hannibal fled to the Seleucid Empire, where he sought to rally support against Rome.

• His life ended in exile, with accounts suggesting he either died of illness or took poison to avoid capture.

• Hannibal's military tactics and strategies continue to be studied in military academies around the world.

5.2.6 Roman Intervention East and West

The Defeat of Carthage

• The defeat of Carthage in the Third Punic War (149-146 BCE) allowed Rome to focus on its interests in the eastern Mediterranean.

• The phrase Carthago delenda est (Carthage must be destroyed) encapsulated the Roman sentiment towards Carthage, leading to a decisive military campaign.

• The siege of Carthage lasted three years, showcasing Roman military strategy and determination.

• In 146 BCE, Rome not only destroyed Carthage but also killed or enslaved nearly all its inhabitants, marking a significant moment in Roman expansion.

• The obliteration of Carthage served as a warning to other states about the consequences of opposing Rome.

• Following the destruction, the province of Africa was established, further extending Roman control.

The Macedonian Wars

• King Philip V of Macedonia allied with Hannibal during the Second Punic War, fearing Roman expansion.

• The Roman legions, characterized by their mobility and tactical flexibility, defeated Philip's phalanxes in 197 BCE.

• The victory over Macedonia marked a shift in power dynamics in the eastern Mediterranean, allowing Rome to assert its influence.

• Following the defeat, Rome declared war on the Seleucid Empire, which had ambitions in Greece, leading to further military engagements.

• The Romans forced the Seleucid emperor to withdraw from Greece and Asia Minor, pay reparations, and disband his naval forces.

• This series of conflicts established Roman dominance in the region and curtailed the ambitions of rival powers.

The Destruction of Corinth

• In 146 BCE, after a resurgence of anti-Roman sentiment in Greece, Rome destroyed Corinth as a punitive measure.

• Corinth was a significant center of Greek culture and commerce, making its destruction a powerful statement against dissent.

• The Romans supported oligarchic factions in Greek states, ensuring that pro-Roman governance was established.

• The establishment of Macedonia as a Roman province allowed for tighter control over Greek affairs.

• The destruction of Corinth and the support of oligarchs reflected Rome's strategy of using local governance to maintain order.

• This period marked the transition of Greece from a collection of city-states to a region under Roman oversight.

Expansion into Asia

The Bequest of Pergamum

• In 133 BCE, the death of the king of Pergamum without an heir led to the kingdom being bequeathed to Rome.

• The Senate accepted this bequest, marking the beginning of Roman provincial expansion into Asia.

• The new province, called Asia, was strategically important for controlling trade routes and military movements.

• This acquisition demonstrated Rome's ability to expand its influence through diplomacy as well as military conquest.

• The establishment of provinces on three continents (Europe, Africa, and Asia) solidified Rome's status as a dominant power in the Mediterranean.

• The integration of these provinces into the Roman Republic facilitated economic exploitation and cultural exchange.

The Impact of Roman Expansion

• The expansion into the eastern Mediterranean and Asia significantly altered the political landscape of the region.

• Roman control over these territories allowed for the spread of Roman culture, law, and governance.

• The establishment of provinces facilitated the collection of taxes and resources, bolstering Rome's economy.

• The military presence in these regions ensured stability and deterred potential uprisings or invasions.

• The integration of diverse cultures into the Roman system led to a complex society that blended various traditions.

• This period set the stage for the eventual transition from Republic to Empire, as the need for centralized control grew

The Republic Collapses

• During the time of the Roman Empire, increasing wealth and expanded boundaries brought economic turmoil that was a significant factor in the empire's collapse. 

• The wealth gap between the rich and poor widened, with enslaved people making up one-third of the population, and small farmers selling their land and becoming part of the urban poor, which accounted for one-quarter of the population. 

• In response to these challenges, brothers Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus proposed reforms aimed at addressing the plight of Rome's poor.

• Military upheaval, where generals are consolidating more power for themselves. 

• They are recruiting soldiers from the lower socioeconomic classes by promising them land. 

• In this process, they are replacing citizen-soldiers whose loyalty was originally to the republic.

Julius Caeser

Caeser’s Rise to Power

• In 60 BC, Caesar allied with Crassus and Pompey, creating the first Triumvirate. 

• Caesar became the governor of Gaul and gained popularity in Rome. 

• Tensions rose as Pompey feared Caesar's ambitions, leading to a conflict between their armies. 

• Caesar emerged victorious, and in 44 BC, he was appointed dictator for life by the Senate.

Caesar’s Reforms

• Reforms included: Granting Roman citizenship to many provinces, expanding the Senate, creating jobs for the poor through the construction of new public buildings, and increasing pay for soldiers.

• Nobles and senators became concerned over growing power, success and popularity of Caeser

• Caeser was assassinated on March 15, 44 BC

The Roman Empire

• After a civil war broke out, Octavio, Mark Antony, and Lepidus took control of Rome and ruled for the next 10 years, known as the Second Triumvirate.

•  Octavian forced Lepidus to retire, while Antony met Cleopatra and went to Egypt, leading to another civil war. 

• Octavian emerged victorious, defeating Antony and Cleopatra, and became the unchallenged ruler of Rome. 

• He accepted the title of Augustus, also known as "exalted one," and took on the title of Emperor.

                                                                                                                                                 10/25/24

Christianity Spreads throughout the Empire

Jesus preached:

• God’s personal relationship with each person

• Importance of people’s love for God, their neighbors, their enemies, and themselves

• God would offer eternal life to those who repented of their sins

Paul

• Spent his life spreading and interpreting Christ’s teachings

• Pax Romana made travel and the exchange of ideas sade

• Common language of Latin and Greek

Message easily understood

• Christian converts are not obligated to follow Jewish law

Jewish Rebellion & Persecution of Christians

• Jews revolt against Rome in 66 CE

Romans destroy the temple

Jewish religion survives but the political state destroyed

Dispersal of Jews from their homeland into exile is called the Diaspora

• Christians refused to worship Roman Gods

Refusal seen as opposition to Roman Rule

Scapegoats for political and economic troubles

• After Pax Romana declined, Christian persecution intensified

Exile imprisoned or executed

• Crucified, burned, or killed by wild animals

• Martyrs- people willing to sacrifice their lives for the sake of a belief or cause

A World Religion

• Christianity spread

Embraced all peoples

Gave hope to the powerless

Appealed to those who were repelled by the extravagances of Imperial Rome

Offered a personal relationship with a loving God

Promised an eternal life after death

• Constantine (Roman Emperor)

312 C.E. Battle of Milvian Bridge

There he sees an image of a cross (a symbol of Christianity)

Constantine announced an end to the persecution of Christians

Edict of Milan- He declared Christianity to be one of the religions approved by the emperor

Early Christian Church

• Church hierarchy

Local level: priest

Supervisor of several local churches: bishop

Leader of the Church (bishop of Rome): Pope

• Disagreements about beliefs develop among followers

Heresy: any belief that contradicts the basic teachings of the Church

• Single, official set of beliefs

New Testament

Constantine called all Church leaders to Nicaea

Nicene Creed: defined the basic beliefs of the Church

A Century of Crisis

Pax Romana ended with the reign of Marcus Aurelius

• Economy

Hostile tribes and pirates disrupt trade

Need for revenue; lack of gold and silver

Raise taxes; creates more money

Inflation: drop in value of money with a rise in prices

Agriculture: harvests weak due to overworked soil

War destroyed farmland; food shortages & spread of disease

• Military and Political Turmoil

Soldiers less disciplined and loyal

Recruiting of mercenaries (foreign soldiers who fought for money)

Loss of patriotism; indifferent to empire’s fate

• 476 is when the Roman Empire collapsed and the end of ancient history

Emperors Attempt Reform                                             

                                                                                                                                     10/29/24

• Diocletian: emperor in 284 C.E.

Restored order and increased strength of the empire

Doubled the size of the army

Set fixed prices for goods

Claimed descent from ancient Roman gods

Split empire in two, administratively 

Too large and complex for one ruler

Greek speaking East

Greece, Anatolia, Syria, and Egypt

Latin speaking West

Italy, Gaul, Britain, Spain

He ruled the East and was appointed co-ruler for the West

East included the empire’s great cities and trade centers and was wealthier than the West

Retires due to ill health; civil war breaks out

Constantine

• Constantine gains control of the Western empire

• Continues many social and economic policies of Diocletian

• Also gains control of the East setting up a single ruler

• In 330 C.E. he moves the capital from Rome to Byzantium

On Bosphorus Strait: strategic for trade and defense

Changes name to Constantinople

• The center of power shifts to the east from Rome

• The city was protected by massive walls and filled with imperial buildings

Western Empire Crumbles

• Worsening internal problems, separation of the West and the wealthier East, outside invasions

• Outside invaders (Germanic peoples) push into Roman lands

Huns, Visigoths, Vandals, Franks, Saxons

• Western empire unable to field an army to stop them

Rome was overrun and plundered in 410 C.E.

• Huns unite under a chieftain named Attila

Attack East and Western Empires

• The last Roman emperor was defeated in 476 C.E.

Roman empire destroyed

• The eastern half (Byzantine Empire) flourished for 1,000 years, preserving Greek and Roman culture

Lasted until 1453, when it fell to the Ottoman Turks

Islam

Caliph- Successor

Rightly guided caliphs: The first four leaders after Muhammed- Ahu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali

Umayyad dynasty: Damascus

Abbasid Dynasty: Baghdad

Al-Andalus: Spain: Cordoba

Muslim Society          

• Muslim society flourished during the Abbasid government

With Luxurious cities and scholars preserving existing knowledge in original learning

• Baghdad (Abbasid capital) becomes the leading city in the Muslim Empire

Cultural Center for Islamic Learning

Other important cities: Cordoba (Umayyad capital), Cairo (Fatmid Capital) and Jerusalem   

• Four social classes

Upper Class: Muslims at birth 

Second Class: Converts to Islam

Third Class: “Protected people” or Jews, Christians and Zoroastrians

Lowest Class: Slaves (POW, non-Muslims-Pagans)

Muslim Scholarship

• Muslims had practical reasons for supporting the advancement of science

Reliance on math and astronomers to calculate time for prayer and the direction of Mecca

Curiosity about the world and quest for truth

• Muslim leaders preserved and expanded knowledge from ancient Rome

• House of Wisdom- combination library, academy, and translation center

• Scholars of different cultures translated text from Greece, India, and Persia into Arabic 

Arts and Sciences Flourish

• The Qur’an is the standard for all Arabic literature and poetry.

The thousand-and-one Nights is a collection of fairy tales, parables, and legends

• Muslims adopted artistic traditions to suit Islamic beliefs and practices

Images of living beings are prohibited because only Allah can create life

Artists turn to Caligraphy- the art of beautiful handwriting

Blending of Islamic and Byzantine architecture

• Al-Razi was the greatest physician of the Muslim world

Encyclopedia which drew knowledge from Greek, Syrian, Arabic, and Indian sources

• Two important ideas from Muslim scholars in math and Science:

Reliance on scientific observation and experimentation

Ability to find mathematical solutions to old problems

• Muslim scientists solved problems by conducting experiments rather than logical reasoning 

Medicine- Benefits of clean air

• Al-Khwarimazi studied how to bring unknowns to match a known quantity

The technique called Al-jabr or algebra

• Astronomy- Charting the stars, study optics (helped with the development of telescope/microscope)

Middle Ages

 Invaders attack Western Europe

• Invasions by Vikings, Muslims, and Magyars

Kings are too weak to maintain law and order

• Vikings- Lived in Scandinavia

Warships used in raids

Traders, farmers, and explorers

Journeyed into Russia and North America

• Magyars- Nomadic people from the east (Current-day Hungary)

Superb Horsemen

Attacked, but did not take land; took captives as slaves

• Muslims- Attacked from the south, into Italy and Spain

• People in Western Europe looked to local rulers for protection

Feudalism: Political System

Definition- a political system in which nobles are granted the use of lands that legally belong to their king, in exchange for their loyalty, military service, and protection of the people who live on the land

• Based on rights and obligations

• A lord (landowner) granted land (fief) in exchange for military protection and other services

• A person receiving a fief was called a vassal

Structured Society

•          King

Bishops Nobles

         Knights 

         Peasants

• Social class is usually inherited

• Most peasants were serfs

• Serfs- People who could not lawfully leave the place where they were born, Bound to the land, but not slaves. What their labor produced belonged to the lord

The Manor: Economic System

• Manor- Lord’s estate

• Serfs- Peasants who worked the manor and were bound to the land

• Lord provided serfs with

Housing

Farmland

Protection from Bandits

• Serfs:

Tended the lord’s land

Cared for his animals

Performed other tasks to maintain the estate

• All peasants, free or serf owed the lord certain duties

Few days of labor each week

Certain portions of their grain

• Medieval manor consisted of the lord’s manor house, a church and workshops

15 to 30 families generally lived in the village on a manor

• Manor is largely a self-sufficient community

Serfs and Peasents raised or produced everything needed for daily life

• Peasent Life

Peasents paid a tax on all grain ground in the mill

Peasents paid a tax on marriage

Weddings could take place only with the Lord’s consent

Peasants owed the village priest a tithe (church tax). One-tenth of income

• Serfs lived in crowed cottages, close to neighbors

Diet consisted of vegetables, brown bread, grain, cheese, and soup

• Illness and malnutrition constant afflictions

Average life span: 35 years

Political Development in the West 511-1000

• The Christian church was instrumental in providing order, continuity, and hope to followers in a time of chaos

• In present-day France, the Franks led the way in blending Roman and Germanic customs

• This was through granting those legitimate power who converted to Christianity

• Clovis- Intelligent and shrewd diplomat. United the Franks all the way south as Spain. Was at one time, the only legitimate Christian leader in the west 

• Germanic traditions led to constant civil wars and bickering

• The alliance between the Franks and Papacy affected the course of religions and politics for centuries

• It furthered the separation between the Roman church from the Greek Christian church

Charlemegne

• Led the Franks to their most prosperous times

• His efforts in furthering the arts led to a revival of learning 

• Drove the Muslims almost out of Spain

• Restored the Pope to his position

• His empire was not long lived because his empire was too vast for someone besides him to lead the nation

• Split the empire into three, divvying it up to his three grandson

The Great Schism

• Bishops from the major cities started to have conflicts, which led to the Great Schism

• The West became many, small Germanic kingdoms 

• The East and West had many cultural differences that led to power struggles

The Byzantine Emporer believed that he was a true Roman emperor, but Charlemegne was crowned the Holy Roman Emporrer 

The Pope had different beliefs about their power compared to the bishop of Constantinople

Language in the West was Latin, in the East was Greek

• Iconoclasm- Destruction of images (paintings, images, etc). Used by the Eastern Church

• The Western and Eastern Churchs had many divisions between each other

Beliefs- The Western masses used unleavened bread, while the East used leavened bread

Language- The Western masses spoke Latin, while Eastern Masses spoke Greek

Structure- The Western Church was much more centralized

Authority of the Church

• Church structure based on ranks of clergy

Clergy- Religious officials in the church (Bishops and Priests)

Local priests serve as the main contact with the Church

• Feudalism and the manor system created division among people

Shared belief in the teachings of the Church bonded people together

Church is a stable force during an era of warfare and political turmoil

• Sacraments paved the way to salvation

The idea of everlasting life in Heaven gave peasants hope

• At the local level, the church was the center of religious and social life

People worshipped together and met with other villagers

Law of the Church 

•  Church authority was both religious and political 

Unifying set of spiritual beliefs and rituals

All Christians (kings and peasants) were subject to the canon laws (Church Law)

In matters such as marriage and religious practices

If you violate canon law:

Excommunication and interdict

• Excommunication- Banishment from the Church

Pope used this as a threat to wield power over political rulers

Meant no salvation and vassals free from their duties to him

• Interdict- Sacraments and religious services could not be performed in the king’s lands

Holy Roman Empire

• Church influence and increased power spreads across Europe

Monarchs also increase power

Destructive struggles between popes and emperors

• Otto I becomes emperor in 936 C.E.

Most effective ruler of medieval Germany

Worked closely with the Church

Appointed bishops to top government jobs

Used army to help defeat rebellious nobles near Rome

• Emperors claimed authority over much of central and eastern Europe, including parts of France and Italy

Real rulers were the vassals

Appointment of Church officials should be left to the Church

Emperors could decide who would be a bishop in their realm

Feud Between Pope & Emperor

• 1054 CE Henry the Sixth Vs. Pope Gregory The Seventh

Pope Gregory instituted many of the Church’s reforms

Wanted the Church independent of secular rulers

The banned practice of “lay vestiture”

Emperor or another lay person (not a member of the clergy) could invest or present bishops to their office 

• Henry: Bishops held their land as royal fiefs

Henry was their overlord; he was entitled to give them symbols of the office

Rebellious German princes supported the Pope

• 1076 CE Gregory excommunicated Henry

Henry repents and makes peace with the Pope

Gregory reinstates Henry

Leads an army to Rome and the Pope goes into exile

• The Concordat of Worms- A treaty declared that the Church had the sole power to elect and invest bishops with spiritual authority, but the emperor could veto the appointment. The emperor still invested them with fiefs

Struggle for Italy

• German emperors sought to control Italy; and came into conflict with popes and wealthy cities of northern Italy

• Federick Barbarossa

Dominated German princes by his military skills and forceful personality 

Fought to bring wealthy northern Italian cities under his control

Cities joined forces with the pope to defeat Barbarossa’s armies

• Effects on Germany

German nobles become more independent and assert more power

Holy Roman Empire survived but as a patchwork of feudal states

Church Power Reaches Its Height

• 1200’s Church reaches the peak of its political power

• Pope Innocent III: Excommunicated kings & extended the Papal States