7.4 IB History of the Americas Notes

US Involvement in Vietnam: Three Stages

1. Stage 1: Assistance (1945–1964)

• The US supported France and later South Vietnam under the policy of containment.

• This period saw the USA helping the French maintain control over Indochina after WWII.

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• After Soviet expansion and the fall of China to communism (1949), the US shifted focus to combating communism in Asia.

2. Stage 2: Escalation (1964–1968)

• Under President Lyndon B. Johnson, US involvement escalated.

• The US military presence increased from 15,000 advisers to 500,000 soldiers.

• This period intensified the conflict and deepened US engagement in the Vietnam War.

3. Stage 3: Vietnamization (1969–1973)

• President Richard Nixon aimed to reduce US involvement and transfer combat responsibility to the South Vietnamese.

• Nixon sought to withdraw while achieving “peace with honor.”

Key Events and Context:

• After WWII, France aimed to regain control over Indochina (Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia).

• The Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh, opposed both the French and Japanese occupation.

• Initially, the US supported Ho Chi Minh during the Japanese occupation, but as the Cold War escalated, the US shifted to opposing the Viet Minh due to their communist ties.

• By 1949, the US began viewing the Viet Minh as aligned with Soviet communism, sparking US financial and military support for the French and later South Vietnamese forces.

US Involvement in Vietnam: 1950–1957

1. Shift in Focus to Asia

• The Korean War (1950) marked a turning point as US soldiers were fighting communists backed by the USSR.

• Truman administration saw the situation in Indochina, China, and Korea as a new phase of Soviet expansionism, concluding that no region was safe from communism.

2. Initial US Assistance to France (1950–1954)

• In 1950, Truman gave $40 million in aid to France, initiating US involvement in Vietnam.

• Between 1950 and 1954, the US gave $2.6 billion to the French, covering half the cost of the war.

• Despite sending 400,000 troops, France lost the war, culminating in the defeat at the Battle of Dien Bien Phu (1954), where 10,000 French troops were captured by the Viet Minh.

3. Eisenhower’s Response

• France requested US ground forces to help, but President Eisenhower refused, against the advice of Vice President Nixon and military commanders.

• Eisenhower articulated the “domino theory,” predicting that if Vietnam fell to communism, other Southeast Asian nations would follow.

4. Geneva Accords (1954)

• The Geneva Conference sought peace and Vietnam’s unification.

• Vietnam was temporarily divided at the 17th parallel, with the Viet Minh controlling the North and French forces retreating to the South.

• 450,000 refugees fled to the South, while 50,000 moved to the North.

• The accords called for UN-supervised elections in 1956, but these elections were canceled by Ngo Dinh Diem, the leader of South Vietnam.

5. Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO)

• In 1955, SEATO was formed to ensure the collective security of the region, protecting countries like Cambodia, Laos, and South Vietnam from communist aggression.

6. US Support for Diem and Covert Involvement

• The US began covert involvement in Vietnam, supporting Ngo Dinh Diem’s government.

• The CIA aided Diem, and by 1955, Diem had canceled the planned elections.

• The Eisenhower administration provided military equipment and sent 1,000 US soldiers as advisors to train the Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN).

7. Viet Cong (VC) Emergence (1957)

• After the elections were canceled, Ho Chi Minh’s guerrilla units, the Viet Cong, began infiltrating the South.

• The Viet Minh initiated VC operations using jungle tactics similar to those employed against the French.

US Involvement in Vietnam: 1959–1968

1. Viet Cong Activity (1959–1961)

• By 1959, the Viet Cong (VC) controlled large portions of the countryside and killed 2,600 South Vietnamese officials.

• The US sent more advisors (about 8,000 by 1961), but ARVN forces were poorly led and unmotivated, making little progress.

• US military leadership concluded that US ground forces would be needed to prevent South Vietnam from losing the war.

2. Kennedy’s Response (1961–1963)

• President Kennedy, seeking to counter communist threats after failures like the Bay of Pigs, committed more resources to Vietnam.

• In 1961, Vice President Johnson’s fact-finding mission led to covert US involvement in the overthrow and assassination of South Vietnamese leader Ngo Dinh Diem.

• Kennedy began the escalation of US involvement, setting a path for deeper engagement in Vietnam.

3. Lyndon B. Johnson and Escalation (1964–1968)

• Gulf of Tonkin Incident (1964): On 2 August, North Vietnamese torpedo boats attacked the USS Maddox. Although the second attack on 4 August was likely a radar malfunction, Johnson used the incident to gain broad congressional support through the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution, which allowed him to escalate US involvement.

• Operation Rolling Thunder: An extensive bombing campaign launched after the Tonkin Resolution to pressure North Vietnam.

• Johnson increased US ground forces to 450,000 by the end of 1966 and employed air and land operations to counter the Viet Cong.

4. Tet Offensive (1968)

• The Tet Offensive, launched by North Vietnam and the Viet Cong on 31 January 1968, saw 85,000 soldiers infiltrating South Vietnam, capturing key positions including the US embassy in Saigon.

• Though militarily defeated, the offensive severely impacted US public opinion, as televised coverage showed the war’s brutal reality, leading to growing anti-war sentiment in the US.

5. Impact on Johnson’s Presidency

• Johnson faced increasing pressure from the anti-war movement and questioned his involvement in the war. His ambitions for domestic reforms (the “Great Society”) were hindered by the war’s cost.

• Despite efforts to achieve a major victory, Johnson could not resolve the conflict before the 1968 election. The Tet Offensive marked a turning point in public opinion, and Johnson chose not to seek re-election.

Key Notes on the Vietnam War (Chapter 7 Overview)

1. USS Maddox & Gulf of Tonkin Incident:

• The Gulf of Tonkin incident led to the escalation of U.S. involvement in Vietnam through the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution.

2. Tet Offensive (1968):

• General Vo Nguyen Giap: believed the most important front of the war was American public opinion.

• Khe Sanh: The U.S. feared another Dien Bien Phu but ultimately relieved the siege.

• Military success for the U.S., but North Vietnam’s propaganda impact influenced public opinion back home.

• President Johnson announced he would not run for re-election, having failed to balance domestic ambitions (Great Society) and the war.

3. Nixon’s Vietnamization Policy (1969-1973):

• Aimed to turn the war over to South Vietnam’s army (ARVN) and gradually withdraw U.S. forces.

• Negotiated with North Vietnam for a peace treaty, recognized North and South Vietnam as separate states.

• Nixon’s escalations (e.g., bombings of Cambodia and Laos) eventually brought North Vietnam back to peace talks.

• 1973: Paris Peace Accords signed; U.S. involvement officially ended.

4. Social Effects of the Vietnam War on U.S. Public:

• The 1960s saw significant civil rights movements and protests, intensifying during the Vietnam War.

• Rise of youth movements, counterculture, and draft resistance.

• Public disillusionment: Middle America, which had supported the war, became skeptical.

• Key figures like Muhammad Ali symbolized anti-war sentiment.

• Walter Cronkite’s public opposition to the war marked a shift in U.S. public opinion.

5. My Lai Massacre (1968):

• U.S. soldiers massacred civilians, fueling the anti-war movement.

• Attempts to cover it up failed, tarnishing the U.S. Army’s reputation.

• Lieutenant William Calley was charged, but the massacre left a lasting stain.

6. Kent State Shooting (1970):

• Nixon’s announcement of the Cambodia invasion triggered protests.

• National Guard opened fire on students at Kent State, killing 4 and wounding 9, leading to nationwide protests and campus closures.

• Further escalated anti-war sentiment.

7. Post-War Impact:

• Vietnam reunified in 1975 under the Hanoi government after the ARVN collapsed.

• Over 58,000 Americans died in Vietnam, and 500,000 resisted the draft.

• The war left the U.S. divided, with its role as a global leader in question.

Key Figures:

• General Vo Nguyen Giap (North Vietnam): Focused on American public opinion.

• Presidents Lyndon B. Johnson & Richard Nixon.

• Walter Cronkite: Influential news anchor who publicly criticized the war.

• Muhammad Ali: Icon of the anti-war movement.

• Lieutenant William Calley: Commander during My Lai.

Key Notes: Canada’s Involvement in the Vietnam War

1. Kent State Shooting (May 4, 1970):

• Notable image: Mary Ann Vecchio kneeling over the body of Jeffrey Miller, captured by student photographer John Filo. The image became an iconic representation of the anti-war movement.

2. Canada’s Complex Role in the Vietnam War:

• First Indochina War: Supported France with modest aid.

• After the Battle of Dien Bien Phu, Canada was involved in Geneva peace talks.

• Part of the International Commission for Supervision and Control of Vietnam (ICSC) with Indian and Polish troops, monitoring ceasefire violations.

3. Neutrality in the Vietnam War:

• Officially neutral but cooperated with the U.S. by providing intelligence through ICSC.

• Early on, many Canadians supported the U.S. position, seeing North Vietnam as the aggressor.

4. Humanitarian Efforts:

• Provided humanitarian aid to South Vietnam through the Red Cross while remaining neutral.

5. New Military Engagement Guidelines:

• No dedicated military alliances unless they had economic and social components.

• Actions had to be supported by local populations and other regional nations.

• No re-establishing colonialism.

• Multilateral actions had to follow the UN Charter, ensuring non-involvement in Vietnam.

6. Growing Canadian Anti-War Sentiment:

• Public protests against U.S. actions in Vietnam grew.

• In 1965, Prime Minister Lester Pearson called for a halt to U.S. bombings in North Vietnam during a speech in the U.S., angering President Johnson but maintaining diplomatic relations.

7. Support for U.S. Draft Dodgers:

• Canada accepted U.S. draft dodgers and deserters.

• By 1969, Canada no longer questioned military status upon entry, making it a destination for 40,000 U.S. men avoiding the draft.

8. Canadian Involvement in U.S. Military:

• Despite anti-war sentiment, approximately 30,000 Canadians volunteered to serve in the U.S. military during the Vietnam War era.

9. Trade with the U.S.:

• Despite non-belligerent status, Canadian companies supplied goods to the U.S., including controversial items like napalm and Agent Orange, which were tested in Canada.

10. Aftermath and Refugee Acceptance:

• Post-war, Canada welcomed Vietnamese refugees, known as “boat people,” increasing the Southeast Asian population in cities like Vancouver, Toronto, and Montreal.

11. Impact on Canadian Identity:

• Canada’s role in the Vietnam War contributed to its evolving national identity, particularly during a period when its international and national identity was being questioned and reformulated.