IGCSE Sociology complete

Unit 1: Research Methods

Positivist approach: The view that sociology should be as scientific as possible, focusing on studying social facts, producing quantitative data, objectivity and reliability.
Interpretivist approach: The view that sociology cannot be scientific, focusing on studying meanings and motivations, producing qualitative data, subjectivity, and validity.
Triangulation: Using a variety of research methods, both qualitative and quantitative, to increase the reliability and validity of research.
Longitudinal studies: Research carried out at intervals over a period of time to observe changes and trends.
Primary data: Data collected by the researcher themselves using methods such as questionnaires, interviews, or observations.
Secondary data: Data that already exists, collected by other researchers or organizations.
Quantitative data: Numerical data that can be statistically analyzed.
Qualitative data: Descriptive data, often in written or verbal form, that focuses on meaning and experiences.
Reliability: The extent to which research findings can be confirmed by repeating the study.
Representativeness: The extent to which a sample reflects the characteristics of the target population.
Generalisability: The extent to which research findings can be applied to the wider target population.
Sampling techniques: Methods for selecting a smaller group of people to represent a larger population: random, systematic, stratified, and quota sampling.
Surveys: Research methods that use questionnaires or structured interviews to collect data from a large number of people.
Questionnaires: Self-completion surveys with pre-set questions.
Interviews: Research method involving asking questions directly to respondents. Can be structured, semi-structured or unstructured.
Observations: Research method that involves watching people's behavior in a social setting. Can be participant or non-participant.
Participant observation: The researcher joins in the activities of the group they are studying.
Non-participant observation: The researcher observes from a distance, without getting involved.
Open questions: Questions that allow respondents to answer in their own words.
Closed questions: Questions that offer a limited range of possible answers.
Scaled questions: Closed questions that offer a range of possible answers such as 'strongly agree' to 'strongly disagree'.
Response rate: The proportion of people who respond to a survey.
Informed consent: Participants should be fully aware of the purpose of the research, what will be required of them, and what will happen to the data.
Privacy/confidentiality: Researchers must respect the privacy of participants and keep their data confidential.
Deception: Researchers should avoid deceiving their participants about the purpose of their research.
Prevention of harm: Researchers should ensure that their research does not cause any harm to their participants.

Unit 2: Identity: Self and Society

Social construction: The idea that concepts like norms, values, and culture are created by societies rather than being natural.
Culture: Shared ways of life, including norms, values, customs, and roles.
Norms: Rules of behavior that are considered normal in particular situations.
Values: Ideas about what is considered important or worthwhile in a society.
Roles: The expected behavior associated with a particular social position.
Status: A person's social position in society.
Stereotypes: Oversimplified ideas about a particular type of person or group.
Social identity: An individual’s sense of who they are based on the social groups they belong to, including family, gender, and ethnicity.
Socialisation: The process by which individuals learn the norms, values, and customs of their culture.
Primary socialization: Socialization that takes place within the family.
Agencies of socialisation: The institutions and groups that socialize people, including family, education, peer groups, media, religion, and the workplace.
Nature-nurture debate: The discussion about the extent to which our personalities, attitudes and behavior are determined by our genes or our environment.
Relativity of culture: The idea that cultural norms and values vary between different societies.
Feral children: Children who have grown up with little to no human contact.
Social control: The ways that societies ensure people conform to norms and values.
Formal social control: Social control enforced by formal agencies, such as government, police, courts, and the penal system.
Informal social control: Social control enforced by informal agencies such as family, education, peer groups, and media.
Sanctions: Ways of rewarding or punishing behavior to encourage conformity.
Coercion: When someone is compelled to do something they do not want to do, often through threats or by force.
Digital surveillance: Monitoring people’s online activities, particularly through internet technology.
Sub-cultures: Groups within a larger culture that have their own distinct norms and values.
Age identity: How age is understood as a component of social identity, with different expectations attached to different life stages.
Gender identity: A person’s internal sense of their own gender, which may or may not align with their sex assigned at birth.
Ethnicity: A shared cultural background often associated with language, customs, religion and ancestry.
Nation identity: A sense of belonging to a nation.
Social class identity: A person's sense of belonging to a particular social class.
Digital identity: The online identity a person creates through social media and other digital platforms.
Globalisation: The process by which the world is becoming increasingly interconnected.
Cultural appropriation: The adoption of elements of a minority culture by members of the dominant culture, often without understanding or respect.
Cultural defence: The ways that cultures attempt to defend themselves against outside influences.
Hybrid identities: Identities created when people combine aspects of different cultures.
Homogenisation of culture: The idea that globalisation is leading to cultures becoming more alike.
Multiculturalism: The presence of many different cultures within one society.
Postmodernism: The idea that modern society is being replaced by a new "post-modern" era which has no single story or identity.
"Pick-and-mix" society: A society in which people have more freedom to choose their own identities and lifestyles.

Unit 3: Social Stratification and Inequality

Social stratification: A system by which a society ranks categories of people in a hierarchy.
Open societies: Societies where social mobility is possible and people can change their social status.
Closed societies: Societies where social mobility is not possible and people's social status is fixed from birth.
Ascribed status: A social position that is assigned to a person at birth.
Achieved status: A social position that a person attains through their own effort and skills.
Poverty: A state of not having enough resources to meet basic needs.
Absolute poverty: When people cannot afford the basic necessities of life, such as food, shelter and healthcare.
Wealth: The total value of a person’s assets, including property, savings and other investments.
Power: The ability to influence or control the behavior of others.
Social exclusion: Being excluded from mainstream society and the social opportunities it offers.
Social mobility: The movement of individuals or groups between different social positions.
Intergenerational mobility: Social mobility that takes place between generations.
Intragenerational mobility: Social mobility that takes place within a person's lifetime.
Meritocracy: A system where people achieve their status based on their talent, ability and effort.
Modern slavery: Situations where people are forced to work against their will.
The caste system: A system of social stratification based on fixed social categories from birth, particularly in India.
Intersectionality: The idea that social inequalities are the result of the interaction of multiple factors, such as age, gender, ethnicity and social class.
Life expectancy: The average number of years a person is expected to live.
Patriarchal: A social system in which men hold primary power.
Social class: A group of people within a society who possess the same socioeconomic status.
The bourgeoisie: The ruling class in a capitalist society, also referred to as the owners of the means of production.
The proletariat: The working class in a capitalist society.
Labelling theory: The idea that people can be labelled which can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Reserve army of labor: A group of people kept in reserve to be employed when necessary.
Capitalism: An economic system based on private ownership of the means of production.
Exploitation of labor: The idea that capitalists pay workers less than the value they create through their labor, to increase profits.
Poverty trap: The idea that poverty makes it harder to escape poverty.
The welfare state: A system of government policies designed to provide support for those who are in need.
Progressive taxation: A tax system in which people with higher incomes pay a greater proportion of their income in taxes.
Unemployment benefits: Payments made to people who are out of work.
Dependency culture: The idea that welfare benefits create a culture where people rely on benefits instead of working.
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs): Organizations that work to address social problems and inequalities that are not part of the government.
Migration: The movement of people from one place to another.
Immigration: The act of moving to a new country to settle there.
Emigration: The act of leaving one’s country to settle elsewhere.
Push and pull factors: The reasons why people leave a country (push) and the reasons why people are attracted to a new country (pull).
Transnational corporations (TNCs): Large companies that operate in many different countries.
Colonialism: The historical practice of one country taking control over another country.
Neo-colonialism: The idea that former colonial powers continue to influence former colonies through economic and political control.
Patriarchy: A social system in which men hold primary power.

Unit 4: Family

Nuclear family: A family unit consisting of parents and their children.
Extended family: A family unit consisting of parents, children and other relatives living together, or in close proximity.
- Vertically extended family: An extended family spanning multiple generations, such as grandparents, parents, and children.
- Horizontally extended family: An extended family including siblings, cousins, aunts, and uncles.
Modified extended family: Extended families where members are not living together, but still maintain regular contact and mutual support.
Reconstituted family: A family formed when adults bring children from previous relationships together.
Same-sex family: A family formed by two adults of the same sex and their children.
Lone-parent family: A family consisting of only one parent and their child/children.
Family diversity: The idea that there are many different types of families.
Monogamy: Marriage between one person and another.
Polygamy: Marriage between one person and more than one partner.
Arranged marriage: Marriages arranged by families rather than chosen by the individuals.
Dual-worker family: A family in which both parents have a job.
Symmetrical family: A family where there is equal sharing of roles and responsibilities between the partners.
Empty nest family: A family where the children have grown up and left home.
Serial monogamy: The practice of having more than one marriage in a person's lifetime, but only one at a time.
Cohabitation: When a couple live together but are not married.
The New Right view: A perspective that blames many social problems on changes to family structures and a decline in the nuclear family.
Postmodernist view: The perspective that there is more choice and diversity of family forms, and individuals have more freedom to choose how they live.
Feminist views of the family: A perspective that focuses on how families can be patriarchal and cause gender inequality.
Domestic division of labor: The way in which tasks are divided within the home between men and women.
The dual burden: The idea that women perform both paid work and unpaid housework.
The triple shift: When women carry the dual burden and also take on the emotional work in the family.
Pivot/sandwich generation: Middle-aged adults that care for both their children and their elderly parents.
Child-centeredness: The idea that modern societies give more importance to children and their needs.
Conjugal roles: The roles of husband and wife within a marriage, these can be segregated or joint.
Boomerang children: Children who have left home, but then return to live with their parents.
Grandparents as dependents: When grandparents become reliant on family for support.

Unit 5: Education

Formal education: Structured learning that takes place in educational institutions.
Informal education: Learning that takes place outside of the formal curriculum, often through the hidden curriculum.
Hidden curriculum: The values and norms that are taught implicitly through the culture of a school.
State schools: Schools funded by the government.
Private schools: Schools funded by fees paid by parents.
Selective schools: Schools that choose students based on ability.
Non-selective schools: Schools that accept students from a wider area.
Single-sex schools: Schools that only teach boys or girls.
Co-educational schools: Schools that teach both boys and girls.
Faith schools: Schools connected to a religion.
International schools: Schools that use a curriculum from another country.
Online learning: Learning that takes place via the internet.
Homeschooling: When children are educated at home by parents or tutors.
Unschooling: A type of homeschooling that gives more freedom to the student over their own learning.
Vocational training: Education that teaches practical skills needed for a specific job.
Progressive schooling: A type of education that focuses on the needs and interests of each individual student.
Socialization The ways in which schools teach the norms and values of a society.
Social control The ways schools teach students to behave and follow rules.
Economic function How the education system provides people with the training and skills needed for the economy.
Selective function How schools identify the most talented people through testing and examinations.
Role allocation: The process of schools sorting people into appropriate roles for work.
Value consensus: How the education system creates a shared set of values.
Meritocracy: A system where people achieve their social position through ability and effort.
The myth of meritocracy The idea that meritocracy does not truly exist in education.
The hidden curriculum: The unwritten rules and norms learned in schools that prepare students for the workplace.
Material deprivation: The lack of resources needed to do well in education due to poverty.
Compensatory education: Programs designed to provide extra support to disadvantaged learners.
Institutional racism: When the practices of an institution are designed to have racist impacts.
Ethnocentrism: The idea that one’s own culture is superior.
Labelling theory: How the labels that teachers give to students can affect how they perform.
Self-fulfilling prophecy: When the expectations of a label cause the person to behave as expected.
Anti-school subcultures: Groups within schools that reject the values of education.
Differential gender socialization: The ways that boys and girls are socialized differently.