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Psychology AQA GCSE - Memory

Bartlett's War of the Ghosts study

Bartlett's War of the Ghosts study examines how memory is influenced by cultural schemas, showing how people reconstruct memories based on existing beliefs and expectations.

Participants in the study read a Native American story and then recalled it. Their recall gradually distorted the story to align with their own cultural norms.
Bartlett's work highlighted the constructive nature of memory, where gaps are filled in with existing knowledge and beliefs.
This study has implications for understanding how memory is not a perfect, objective record but rather influenced by personal experiences and cultural background.
The findings suggest that memory is an active, reconstructive process, shaped by individual interpretation rather than a passive retrieval of information.

Context effects on memory

Context effects on memory refer to how the environment or situation in which information is learned can impact the ability to recall that information.

Memory recall is often better when the context during encoding matches the context during retrieval.
This phenomenon is known as context-dependent memory.
The context could include factors like surroundings, emotional state, or even odors present during learning.
Understanding context effects can help improve memory retention and recall strategies.

Context effects on memory accuracy

Context effects on memory accuracy refer to how the environment or setting in which information is learned can impact the accuracy of memory recall.

These effects can influence both the encoding and retrieval of memories.
Memory recall tends to be more accurate when the context during retrieval matches the context during encoding.
Environmental cues such as sights, sounds, and smells can trigger memories associated with a specific context.
Understanding context effects can help improve memory recall and retrieval strategies during studying.

Context effects on memory recall

Context effects on memory recall refer to how remembering information can be influenced by the surroundings or environment when the memory was encoded.

This phenomenon suggests that memory retrieval can be enhanced by recreating the same context in which the memory was initially formed.
External cues, such as location, mood, and sensory stimuli, can significantly impact memory retrieval and should be considered when studying.
Understanding context effects can help improve memory performance and create effective study strategies by optimizing the environment for information recall.
Research has shown that context-dependent memory can be utilized to improve learning and retention through environmental consistency.

Demand characteristics

Demand characteristics refer to the cues or signals that participants may pick up from an experiment, influencing their behavior and responses.

Demand characteristics can include subtle hints from the experimenter, such as body language or facial expressions.
Participants may alter their behavior to align with what they believe the experimenters want or expect.
Demand characteristics can introduce bias into the results of an experiment, making it difficult to determine if the observed effects are genuine or influenced by participant's perceptions.
Researchers use various techniques to minimize demand characteristics, such as double-blind studies or deception.

Ecological validity

'Ecological validity' refers to the extent to which research findings can be applied to real-world settings or situations.

It is important for research to have high ecological validity in order for the findings to be applicable to everyday life.
Low ecological validity may occur when experiments are conducted in controlled laboratory settings that do not reflect real-world conditions.
Ecological validity can be enhanced by conducting research in naturalistic settings that closely resemble real-life situations.
Factors like the environment, social context, and participant characteristics can affect the ecological validity of a study.

False memories and their implications

False memories are inaccurate recollections that a person believes to be true, often influenced by suggestions, leading to implications in criminal cases and therapy.

Can be created through suggestions, leading questions, and misinformation.
Illustrates the malleability and unreliability of human memory.
Impact legal cases, with false memories potentially leading to false convictions.
In therapy, false memories may result in individuals recalling traumatic events that never actually happened.

Interference as an explanation for memory accuracy

Interference occurs when new information interferes with the ability to remember previously learned information, impacting memory accuracy.

Two types of interference are proactive interference (old information interferes with new) and retroactive interference (new information interferes with old).
Interference is a common cause of forgetting, especially in competitive contexts where multiple pieces of information are in play.
Strategies like spacing study sessions, using retrieval practice, and keeping distractions minimal can help reduce interference effects on memory accuracy.
Understanding interference can lead to more effective learning strategies and improved memory recall.

Memory as an active process

Memory is not just passive storage but involves the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information through active mental processes.

Active processes include attention, rehearsal, and organization to enhance memory performance.
Elaborative encoding, linking new information to existing knowledge, aids in creating more robust memories.
Retrieval practice strengthens memory by actively recalling information instead of simply re-reading.
Prior knowledge and schemas influence how information is encoded and stored in memory.

Memory encoding processes

Memory encoding processes involve converting information into a form that can be stored in memory for later retrieval.

This process can involve forming associations, focusing attention, and actively engaging with the material to enhance encoding.
Visual, acoustic, semantic, and organizational encoding are different strategies used to enhance memory encoding.
Rehearsal is a common technique where the information is repeated to strengthen encoding.
Emotional experiences often lead to stronger memory encoding due to increased arousal and attention.

Memory recall

Memory recall is the process of retrieving information stored in the memory, including accessing previously learned facts, experiences, or skills.

Retrieval cues can aid in memory recall by triggering associations that help access information.
There are different types of memory recall, such as free recall, cued recall, and recognition.
Factors like stress, distractions, and emotions can impact the accuracy of memory recall.
Memory recall can be enhanced through techniques like rehearsal, mnemonic devices, and chunking.

Multi-store model of memory

The Multi-store model of memory proposes that memory consists of three stores: sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.

Information passes through stores via attention and rehearsal.
Each store has different duration and capacity.
STM is also known as working memory.
Improvements have been made with the development of the Working Memory Model.

Murdock's Serial Position Curve Study

Murdock's Serial Position Curve Study found that people tend to remember items at the beginning (primacy effect) and end (recency effect) of a list better than those in the middle.

Recency effect reflects short-term memory, while primacy effect relates to long-term memory.
Murdock's study highlighted the importance of the order of presentation in memory recall.
The curve suggests that items in the middle of a list are more likely to be forgotten due to interference.
Serial position curves are valuable in understanding memory processes and cognitive functioning.

Primacy and recency effects in recall

Primacy and recency effects in recall refer to the tendency for individuals to better remember items presented at the beginning (primacy) and end (recency) of a list.

These effects are commonly observed in memory experiments involving the presentation of a list of items.
The primacy effect is often attributed to the time available for rehearsal and encoding of the initial items.
The recency effect is thought to result from the items being more recent in memory and therefore more easily accessible.
These effects highlight the importance of the order of presentation in influencing memory performance.

Retroactive Interference

Retroactive Interference refers to the cognitive phenomenon where newly learned information inhibits the ability to recall previously learned material.

Typically investigated in memory research studies.
Frequently observed in language learning, where fluency in a new language can hinder recalling an older one.
Leveraged as a constraint in instruction design to maximize information retention.
Contrasts with Proactive Interference where older learnings impede new information.

Storage and retrieval of memory

Memory storage involves encoding, storing, and retrieving information, with the process divided into sensory, short-term, and long-term memory stages.

Information is initially processed through sensory memory, moves to short-term memory for temporary storage, and can be transferred to long-term memory.
Retrieval of memories involves accessing stored information, often impacted by factors such as encoding specificity, context-dependent memory, and retrieval cues.
Memory retrieval can be influenced by interference, leading to forgetting or retrieval failure due to competing information.
Consolidation processes strengthen memories over time, as repeated retrieval can enhance recall and promote long-term memory storage.

Theory of Reconstructive Memory

Reconstructive memory posits that memories are not exact replicas and are recreated using schemas and other information, making them susceptible to distortion.

Memories are influenced by personal beliefs, opinions, and biases, leading to potential inaccuracies.
Reconstructive memory can be impacted by external factors such as leading questions, suggestive information, or emotional state.
Memory retrieval is not like playing back a recording, but more like putting together puzzle pieces to form a coherent narrative.
Understanding reconstructive memory helps explain why eyewitness testimonies can be unreliable and subject to manipulation.

Types of encoding

Encoding refers to the process of converting information into a format that is stored in memory. The different types of encoding include visual, acoustic, semantic, and motor encoding.

Visual encoding involves storing information based on visual characteristics.
Acoustic encoding involves storing information based on sound or auditory input.
Semantic encoding involves encoding information based on its meaning and relevance.
Motor encoding involves storing information through physical movement or muscle memory.

Types of memory storage

Memory storage includes sensory memory for immediate input, short-term memory for temporary storage, and long-term memory for indefinite retention.

Sensory memory lasts milliseconds to seconds and holds raw sensory information.
Short-term memory retains around 7 items for 20-30 seconds without rehearsal.
Long-term memory can store unlimited amounts of information for a long time and can be explicit or implicit.
Working memory is an active memory system that holds and manipulates information for complex cognitive tasks.

Key Terms

Acoustic Encoding

Acoustic encoding involves processing information based on its sound, such as mentally rehearsing information by repeating it out loud.

Studies suggest acoustic encoding involves the brain converting information into sounds for storage and retrieval.
Repeating information aloud or creating rhymes are effective strategies for enhancing acoustic encoding.
Acoustic encoding can enhance memory recall by associating sounds with information during the encoding process.
Dual-coding theory suggests combining acoustic and visual encoding can lead to stronger memory recall compared to using just one form.

Capacity of short-term memory

Capacity of short-term memory refers to the limited amount of information that can be held in the mind at one time, typically around 7 (plus or minus 2) items.

Chunking can help increase STM capacity by organizing information into meaningful groups.
STM is fragile and susceptible to interference from external distractions.
Recency effect suggests that items at the end of a list are better recalled due to being in STM.
STM capacity can vary based on individual differences, such as age or cognitive ability.

Chunking

Chunking is a cognitive process where information is grouped into smaller units to improve working memory capacity and recall.

Chunking is commonly used to remember phone numbers.
It can also be applied to learning new vocabulary or memorizing formulas.
Chunking can be facilitated by using mnemonic devices.
It helps to organize information and makes it easier to access and retrieve.

Context

Context refers to the circumstances or environment in which a behavior occurs, including the social, cultural, and physical factors.

Context plays a significant role in shaping behavior and determining its meaning.
Understanding the context is essential for interpreting and predicting behavior.
Context can include things like the presence of other people, location, time, and cultural norms.
Changing the context can lead to changes in behavior or the interpretation of behavior.

Context Effects

Context Effects refer to how our perception, understanding, and interpretation of a stimulus can be influenced by the environmental context in which it is presented.

Understanding Context Effects can help in comprehending how individuals may perceive information differently based on the surrounding environment.
Factors such as surroundings, timing, and emotions play a role in shaping Context Effects.
Research shows that changes in context can alter memory recall and decision-making processes.
Awareness of Context Effects is beneficial in various fields such as marketing, design, and communication for effective message delivery.

Counterbalancing

Counterbalancing involves systematically varying the order of treatments in a research study to account for potential order effects.

It helps control for any influence of the order in which treatments are given.
Minimizes the impact of confounding variables that arise from the sequence of treatments.
Can involve different sequences for different participants to ensure fair comparison across groups.
Used in experimental designs to enhance the validity and reliability of study findings.

Cued recall

Cued recall involves using specific cues or prompts to aid in the retrieval of previously learned information.

Cues can be words, images, or other stimuli linked to the information being recalled.
It can be more effective than free recall, as cues provide hints to facilitate memory retrieval.
Contextual cues, such as the environment in which learning occurred, can enhance cued recall.
Implementing strategies such as mnemonic devices can improve accuracy and speed of cued recall.

Declarative Memory

Declarative Memory refers to the cognitive system responsible for storing and retrieving consciously accessible information, typically involving facts or events.

It encompasses two subsections: semantic memory (knowledge about the world) and episodic memory (personal experiences).
Declarative Memory heavily relies on the medial temporal lobe, notably the hippocampus, for function.
It differs from non-declarative (procedural) memory, which involves unconscious recall of motor skills.
Disorders like Alzheimer's and amnesia can severely impact declarative memory, affecting an individual's recall ability.

Distraction task

A distraction task is an activity designed to divert attention from an ongoing process or task, often used in research settings to explore focus and attention span.

It can involve puzzles, games, or other engaging activities.
It is used to study cognitive processes and task performance.
The impact of distractions can vary based on individual differences.
Distraction tasks can be helpful in understanding multitasking abilities.

Effort after meaning

Effort after meaning refers to the human tendency to seek understanding and purpose in life experiences and challenges.

It involves actively searching for significance and coherence in one's experiences.
It can lead to personal growth and resilience in the face of adversity.
People may engage in introspection, seeking connections between events and personal values.
Effort after meaning can provide a sense of direction and motivation in confronting life's uncertainties.

Episodic memory

Episodic memory refers to the ability to recall specific events, experiences, and personal knowledge of past events.

Episodic memory is a form of long-term memory that allows us to remember personal experiences and events.
It is a type of declarative memory, meaning that it involves conscious recollection of information.
Episodic memory often involves the retrieval of contextual details, such as time, place, emotions, and people.
It is important for developing personal identity and self-awareness, as well as in goal-setting and future planning.

extraneous variables

Extraneous variables are factors other than the independent variable that may influence the dependent variable in a research study.

These variables can create unintended bias and confound the results of the study.
Researchers attempt to control or eliminate extraneous variables through random assignment, matching, and statistical techniques.
Extraneous variables can be environmental, participant-related, or related to the manipulation of the independent variable.
Failure to account for or control extraneous variables can lead to inaccurate conclusions in research.

False memory

False memory refers to the phenomenon where individuals remember events or experiences that did not actually occur.

False memory can be influenced by suggestion, imagination, and the power of persuasion.
Memories can become distorted over time, leading to the creation of false memories.
False memories can be triggered by external cues or through the process of confabulation.
Understanding false memory is important in the legal system, as eyewitness testimony can sometimes be unreliable.

Free Recall

Free Recall is a memory retrieval task where individuals freely recall information without specific cues or prompts.

Participants can retrieve information in any order and are not limited by cues.
It assesses the ability to retrieve information from long-term memory without external aids.
Free recall is typically used in research studies to measure memory performance.
It is considered a test of episodic memory, involving the recollection of specific past events or experiences.

Laboratory study

A laboratory study involves controlled experiments conducted in a controlled environment to investigate behaviors and phenomena.

Laboratory studies allow for the manipulation of variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Researchers can control extraneous variables in a laboratory study to ensure the validity of the findings.
Participants in laboratory studies are typically exposed to specific stimuli or tasks set up by researchers.
Findings from laboratory studies may lack ecological validity due to the artificial setting in which they are conducted.

Leading questions

Leading questions are questions that subtly or indirectly suggest a particular response, leading the respondent to answer in a certain way.

Leading questions can influence the responses given by creating a false memory.
Leading questions may be used in interviews to manipulate the answers provided.
The use of leading questions can affect the reliability and validity of research findings.
Leading questions are commonly used in the field of law to influence witness testimonies.

Long-term memory

Long-term memory refers to the phase of memory where information is stored for an extended period of time.

Long-term memory has a virtually unlimited capacity to store information.
The process of transferring information from short-term to long-term memory is called encoding.
Long-term memory is divided into categories such as procedural memory, episodic memory, and semantic memory.
The retrieval of information from long-term memory involves processes like recognition and recall.

non-declarative memory

Non-declarative memory is the unconscious, automatic memory responsible for skills, habits, and emotions, acquired without conscious effort or verbal expression.

Also known as procedural memory and implicit memory.
It includes skills like riding a bike, playing an instrument, and emotional responses.
Different from declarative memory which is factual and conscious.
Non-declarative memories are difficult to verbalize or consciously recall.

Olfactory encoding

Olfactory encoding refers to the process of how the brain receives, organizes, and stores information from scents. Olfactory cues can trigger memories and emotions.

The olfactory bulb plays a key role in processing smells and transmitting information to the brain.
Olfactory memories are closely linked to emotional responses and can evoke vivid recollections.
Olfactory encoding is connected to the limbic system, influencing emotional processing and memory consolidation.
Studies show that humans can recognize a vast number of different smells, showcasing the brain's capacity for olfactory discrimination.

Primacy effect

The primacy effect refers to the tendency to remember information that is presented first in a list or sequence.

The primacy effect can have a significant impact on memory recall.
It is often attributed to the brain's limited capacity to process and retain information.
The primacy effect is related to the concept of serial position effect in cognitive psychology.
Repetition and rehearsal can enhance the primacy effect and improve memory retention.

Proactive interference

Proactive interference occurs when previously learned information interferes with the recall of new information.

Proactive interference is more likely to occur when the previously learned information is similar to the new information.
Sleeping or taking breaks between studying sessions can help reduce proactive interference.
Using mnemonic devices and visual aids can also help overcome proactive interference.
Practicing retrieval of the new information through quizzes or self-testing can improve memory recall.

Procedural memory

Procedural memory is a type of long-term memory that is responsible for remembering how to perform tasks, skills, or procedures.

Procedural memory is often automatic and not dependent on conscious awareness.
Examples of procedural memory include riding a bike, typing, and tying shoelaces.
Procedural memory is typically acquired through repetition and practice.
It is important for tasks that require motor skills and muscle memory.

Recency effect

Recency effect is a cognitive bias where individuals have better recall of the most recent information compared to earlier information.

It is one of the elements that influence the serial position effect in memory.
The recency effect is more likely to occur when there is a short time interval between learning and recall.
It can be observed in various cognitive processes such as decision-making, learning, and problem-solving.
The recency effect is related to the idea that information at the end of a sequence is more easily accessible in short-term memory.

Recognition

Recognition refers to the cognitive process of identifying a previously learned object, event, or person based on memory.

Recognition involves noticing and perceiving stimuli that match previously stored information.
It is a form of memory retrieval that can be unconscious or conscious.
This process is critical for our daily functioning, allowing us to recognize familiar faces, places, and objects.
Recognition is influenced by factors such as attention, perception, and the strength of the original memory trace.

Rehearsal

Rehearsal is the process of repeating information in order to maintain it in short-term memory.

Rehearsal helps to transfer information from short-term memory to long-term memory.
Maintenance rehearsal involves repetition without attaching any meaning to the information.
Elaborative rehearsal involves relating new information to previously stored knowledge.
Distributed rehearsal, spacing out rehearsal sessions over time, is more effective than massed rehearsal.

Retrieval

In the context of memory, retrieval refers to the process of recalling or remembering information stored in the long-term memory.

The process of retrieval can be triggered by cues or prompts that remind us of the information we want to remember.
Retrieval can be influenced by factors such as the strength of the memory trace and the level of interference.
While retrieval may sometimes be effortless, it can also be affected by various memory retrieval errors, such as forgetting or misremembering information.
The effectiveness of retrieval can be enhanced through strategies such as rehearsal, organization, and retrieval practice.

Semantic Encoding

Semantic encoding is a process in which information is encoded based on its meaning and relevance.

Semantic encoding involves attaching meaning to information, making it more likely to be remembered.
This type of encoding is considered to be a deep level of processing.
Semantic encoding is also linked to the use of elaborate rehearsal techniques.
Research suggests that semantic encoding can enhance long-term memory compared to shallow encoding strategies.

Semantic memory

Semantic memory is a type of long-term memory that stores general knowledge and facts about the world.

Semantic memory is not tied to personal experiences, but rather focuses on concepts, meanings, and knowledge about the world.
It is a part of declarative memory, which includes both semantic and episodic memory.
Semantic memory is responsible for our ability to understand and use language, as well as to categorize and organize information.
It is relatively stable and not influenced by the passage of time or context.

Serial position effect

Serial position effect refers to the tendency for people to recall the first and last items in a list more easily than the middle items.

Serial position effect can affect both long-term and short-term memory.
The primacy effect refers to better recall of items at the beginning of a list.
The recency effect refers to better recall of items at the end of a list.
The middle items in a list are often forgotten or recalled less accurately due to interference from other items.

Short-term memory

Short-term memory refers to the temporary storage of information in the brain, lasting for a few seconds to minutes.

Short-term memory capacity is limited, typically allowing for the storage of around 7 items at a time.
The duration of short-term memory can be extended through techniques such as rehearsal and chunking.
Forgetting in short-term memory is often due to interference from other information or the passage of time.
Information in short-term memory can be transferred to long-term memory through processes like encoding and consolidation.

Storage

Storage refers to the process of retaining information in memory over time.

Types of storage include sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory.
Information can be encoded and stored in various formats, such as visual, auditory, or semantic.
Factors that can affect storage include attention, rehearsal, and the organization of information.
Retrieval cues can help in accessing stored information when needed.

Tactile encoding

Tactile encoding involves the process of mentally representing information based on touch sensations, enabling memory retention through physical interactions.

Tactile encoding is a form of sensory memory that enhances learning by engaging the sense of touch.
Studies show that tactile encoding can improve memory recall as touch-based interactions create stronger memory traces.
Utilizing tactile encoding techniques can be particularly beneficial in educational settings to enhance learning and retention.
Interactive activities like hands-on experiments and material exploration can aid in tactile encoding for better information processing.

Visual Encoding

Visual encoding involves the process of converting visual information into a mental representation for storage and later retrieval.