(1448) English Language A Level : 18 Theories of Children's Language Development Paul Heselton

Chapter 1: Introduction

• Overview of the English Language A Level exam.

• Focuses on 18 key theories of children's language development (CLD).

Chapter 2: Behaviorism

• B.F. Skinner's Theory: Language learning is based on imitation and operant conditioning.

  • Key Terms: Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, Tabula Rasa.

  • Positive Reinforcement: Praise from adults after child's utterance.

  • Negative Reinforcement: Lack of response discourages further language use.

  • Tabula Rasa: Children are born as a 'blank slate' for language learning.

• Evaluation:

  • Limitation 1: Children do not merely repeat adult language.

  • Limitation 2: Virtuous errors (e.g., "I eated") suggest active processing.

  • Limitation 3: Universal stages of development challenge behaviorism.

  • Limitation 4: Caregivers often do not provide explicit grammatical correction.

Chapter 3: Nativism

• Noam Chomsky: Advocated for innate language abilities through the Language Acquisition Device (LAD).

  • Key Term: Universal Grammar.

  • Children learn languages at similar rates regardless of input.

  • Virtuous Errors: Evidence that children apply grammatical rules.

• Evaluation:

  • Limitation 1: Children lack specific linguistic categories, use general inference rules.

  • Limitation 2: Theoretical claims without supporting linguistic data.

  • Limitation 3: Insufficient attention on the role of social interaction.

  • Case Study: "Jim": a child raised without interaction leading to language delays.

Chapter 4: Cognitive Theory

• Jean Piaget: Proposes that thinking precedes language.

  • Development occurs in four stages: Sensory-Motor, Pre-Operational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational.

  • Children’s cognitive development influences their language use.

• Examples for Evaluation:

  • Links between linguistic and cognitive development are seen in early speech.

  • Advanced language may exist without corresponding cognitive abilities.

Chapter 5: Social Interactionism

• Jerome Bruner: Emphasizes children's interactions with caregivers (Language Acquisition Support System).

  • Child-Directed Speech (CDS) plays a vital part in language development.

• Evaluation:

  • Cross-cultural studies challenge the necessity of CDS.

  • Examples from the Kaluli tribe show language development without CDS.

Chapter 6: Structuralist Approach

• Children exhibit predictable phases of language usage independent of language spoken.

  • Stages: Pre-Verbal, Holophrastic, Two-Word, Telegraphic, Post-Telegraphic.

  • Significant structures begin at the Two-Word stage identified by Roger Brown.

Chapter 7: Functional Approach

• Michael Halliday: Language serves various functions.

  • Seven Functions: Instrumental, Regulatory, Interactional, Personal, Heuristic, Imaginative, Representational.

  • John Dore's Functions: Highlights practical uses in the holophrastic stage.

Chapter 8: Scaffolding

• Lev Vygotsky: Active learning facilitated by caregivers (More Knowledgeable Other).

  • Key Term: Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).

Chapter 9: Critical Period Hypothesis

• Eric Lenneberg: Critical window for language acquisition exists.

  • Case Study: "Genie": outcomes when critical period is missed.

Chapter 10: The Wug Test

• Jean Berko Gleason: Test supports nativist ideas on innate grammatical understanding through morphological tasks.

  • Wug test: demonstrates the application of grammatical rules to unfamiliar words.

Chapter 11: The 'Fis' Phenomenon

• Shows children can understand phonemes but struggle with articulation.

• Challenges behaviorist views: mere imitation doesn’t explain this phenomenon.

Chapter 12: IRF Structure

• Sinclair and Coulthard: Model captures conversational turn-taking in Child-Directed Speech (Initiation, Response, Feedback).

Chapter 13: Early Lexis

• Catherine Nelson: Early words categorized primarily as nouns (60%) and then verbs.

• Focus is on lexical lexicon rather than grammatical words.

Chapter 14: Semantic Development

• Eve Clark: Characteristics of children's semantics include overextension and underextension.

• Overgeneralization demonstrates advanced cognitive linking.

Chapter 15: Lexical Development

• Jean Aitchison: Three stages of lexical development: Labeling, Packaging, Network Building.

• Understanding word relationships suggests advanced lexical skills.

Chapter 16: Grammatical Development

• Roger Brown: Predictable order of inflections learned by children, tracked through observable speech patterns.

• Ursula Bellugi: Studies on development of pronouns, negatives, and interrogatives.

Chapter 17: Pronoun Development

• Stages of pronoun use: Nominalization, partial application, standard use.

• Focus on evolving understanding of context and relationships.

Chapter 18: Constructing Negative Sentences

• Bellugi's Three Stages of developing negation in sentence formation.

Chapter 19: Interrogative Development

• Stages of question formation include intonation, the use of interrogative pronouns, and subject-verb inversion.

Conclusion

• Review of theories essential for success in CLD essay questions for the A Level exam.