(1448) English Language A Level : 18 Theories of Children's Language Development Paul Heselton

Chapter 1: Introduction

B.F. Skinner's Theory: Language learning is based on imitation and operant conditioning.
- Key Terms: Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, Tabula Rasa.
- Positive Reinforcement: Praise from adults after child's utterance.
- Negative Reinforcement: Lack of response discourages further language use.
- Tabula Rasa: Children are born as a 'blank slate' for language learning.
Evaluation:
- Limitation 1: Children do not merely repeat adult language.
- Limitation 2: Virtuous errors (e.g., "I eated") suggest active processing.
- Limitation 3: Universal stages of development challenge behaviorism.
- Limitation 4: Caregivers often do not provide explicit grammatical correction.

Noam Chomsky: Advocated for innate language abilities through the Language Acquisition Device (LAD).
- Key Term: Universal Grammar.
- Children learn languages at similar rates regardless of input.
- Virtuous Errors: Evidence that children apply grammatical rules.
Evaluation:
- Limitation 1: Children lack specific linguistic categories, use general inference rules.
- Limitation 2: Theoretical claims without supporting linguistic data.
- Limitation 3: Insufficient attention on the role of social interaction.
- Case Study: "Jim": a child raised without interaction leading to language delays.

Jean Piaget: Proposes that thinking precedes language.
- Development occurs in four stages: Sensory-Motor, Pre-Operational, Concrete Operational, Formal Operational.
- Children’s cognitive development influences their language use.
Examples for Evaluation:
- Links between linguistic and cognitive development are seen in early speech.
- Advanced language may exist without corresponding cognitive abilities.

Jerome Bruner: Emphasizes children's interactions with caregivers (Language Acquisition Support System).
- Child-Directed Speech (CDS) plays a vital part in language development.
Evaluation:
- Cross-cultural studies challenge the necessity of CDS.
- Examples from the Kaluli tribe show language development without CDS.

Children exhibit predictable phases of language usage independent of language spoken.
- Stages: Pre-Verbal, Holophrastic, Two-Word, Telegraphic, Post-Telegraphic.
- Significant structures begin at the Two-Word stage identified by Roger Brown.

Michael Halliday: Language serves various functions.
- Seven Functions: Instrumental, Regulatory, Interactional, Personal, Heuristic, Imaginative, Representational.
- John Dore's Functions: Highlights practical uses in the holophrastic stage.

Lev Vygotsky: Active learning facilitated by caregivers (More Knowledgeable Other).
- Key Term: Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD).

Eric Lenneberg: Critical window for language acquisition exists.
- Case Study: "Genie": outcomes when critical period is missed.

Jean Berko Gleason: Test supports nativist ideas on innate grammatical understanding through morphological tasks.
- Wug test: demonstrates the application of grammatical rules to unfamiliar words.

Sinclair and Coulthard: Model captures conversational turn-taking in Child-Directed Speech (Initiation, Response, Feedback).

Catherine Nelson: Early words categorized primarily as nouns (60%) and then verbs.
Focus is on lexical lexicon rather than grammatical words.

Eve Clark: Characteristics of children's semantics include overextension and underextension.
Overgeneralization demonstrates advanced cognitive linking.

Jean Aitchison: Three stages of lexical development: Labeling, Packaging, Network Building.
Understanding word relationships suggests advanced lexical skills.

Roger Brown: Predictable order of inflections learned by children, tracked through observable speech patterns.
Ursula Bellugi: Studies on development of pronouns, negatives, and interrogatives.

Stages of question formation include intonation, the use of interrogative pronouns, and subject-verb inversion.

Review of theories essential for success in CLD essay questions for the A Level exam.