Unit 5-8

Consciousness (p. 219):
Our awareness of ourselves and our environment.

Hypnosis (p. 219):
A social interaction in which one person suggests to another that certain perceptions, feelings, thoughts, or behaviors will spontaneously occur.

Posthypnotic Suggestion (p. 220):
A suggestion made during hypnosis that influences behavior afterward.

Dissociation (p. 222):
A split in consciousness allowing some thoughts and behaviors to occur simultaneously with others.

Circadian Rhythm (p. 226):
The biological clock; regular bodily rhythms (for example, of temperature and wakefulness) that occur on a roughly 24-hour cycle.

REM Sleep (p. 226):
Rapid Eye Movement sleep; a recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams commonly occur, and the body is mostly paralyzed.

Alpha Waves (p. 227):
The relatively slow brain waves of a relaxed, awake state.

Sleep (p. 227):
Periodic, natural, reversible loss of consciousness.

Hallucinations (p. 228):
False sensory experiences, such as seeing something in the absence of an external visual stimulus.

Delta Waves (p. 228):
Large, slow brain waves associated with deep sleep (stage 3).

NREM Sleep (p. 228):
Non-rapid eye movement sleep; encompasses all sleep stages except REM.

Suprachiasmatic Nucleus (SCN) (p. 229):
A pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that controls circadian rhythm by responding to light signals.

Insomnia (p. 238):
Persistent problems in falling or staying asleep.

Narcolepsy (p. 238):
A sleep disorder characterized by uncontrollable sleep attacks, sometimes directly into REM sleep.

Sleep Apnea (p. 239):
A sleep disorder characterized by temporary cessations of breathing during sleep and repeated momentary awakenings.

Night Terrors (p. 239):
Sleep disorder causing high arousal and an appearance of being terrified, usually occurring during NREM-3.

Dream (p. 240):
A sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through the sleeping mind.

Manifest Content (p. 241):
According to Freud, the remembered storyline of a dream.

Latent Content (p. 241):
According to Freud, the underlying meaning of a dream.

REM Rebound (p. 243):
The tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation.

Substance Use Disorder (p. 246):
A disorder characterized by continued substance craving and use despite significant life disruption and/or physical risk.

Psychoactive Drug (p. 246):
A chemical substance that alters perceptions and moods.

Tolerance (p. 246):
The diminishing effect with regular use of the same dose of a drug, requiring the user to take larger doses.

Addiction (p. 247):
Compulsive craving of drugs or certain behaviors despite known harmful consequences.

Withdrawal (p. 247):
The discomfort and distress following discontinued use of an addictive drug.

Depressants (p. 248):
Drugs that reduce neural activity and slow body functions (e.g., alcohol, barbiturates).

Alcohol Use Disorder (p. 249):
Alcohol use marked by tolerance, withdrawal, and a drive to continue problematic use.

Barbiturates (p. 250):
Drugs that depress central nervous system activity, reducing anxiety but impairing memory and judgment.

Opiates (p. 250):
Opium and its derivatives that depress neural activity, temporarily lessening pain and anxiety.

Stimulants (p. 250):
Drugs that excite neural activity and speed up body functions (e.g., caffeine, nicotine).

Amphetamines (p. 250):
Stimulate neural activity, causing accelerated body functions and associated energy and mood changes.

Nicotine (p. 250):
A stimulating and highly addictive psychoactive drug in tobacco.

Cocaine (p. 252):
A powerful and addictive stimulant derived from the coca plant producing temporarily increased alertness and euphoria.

Methamphetamine (p. 253):
A highly addictive drug that stimulates the central nervous system with speeded-up body functions and associated energy/mood changes.

Ecstasy (MDMA) (p. 253):
A synthetic stimulant and mild hallucinogen producing euphoria and social intimacy but with health risks.

Hallucinogens (p. 254):
Psychoactive drugs that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images without sensory input.

LSD (p. 254):
A powerful hallucinogenic drug also known as acid.

Near-Death Experience (p. 255):
An altered state of consciousness reported after a close brush with death, often involving visions.

THC (p. 255):
The major active ingredient in marijuana that triggers a variety of effects, including mild hallucinations.

Sigmund Freud:
Founder of psychoanalysis; theorized dreams have manifest and latent content, revealing unconscious desires.

Learning (p. 263):
A relatively permanent change in behavior or knowledge due to experience.

Habituation (p. 264):
Decreasing responsiveness to a repeated stimulus over time.

Associative Learning (p. 264):
Learning that certain events occur together; includes classical and operant conditioning.

Stimulus (p. 264):
Any event or situation that evokes a response.

Cognitive Learning (p. 265):
Acquiring mental information by observing events, watching others, or through language.

Classical Conditioning (p. 266):
A type of learning where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response.

Behaviorism (p. 266):
The view that psychology should be an objective science focused on observable behavior without reference to mental processes.

Neutral Stimulus (NS) (p. 266):
A stimulus that initially produces no specific response other than focusing attention.

Unconditioned Response (UR) (p. 267):
An unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus.

Unconditioned Stimulus (US) (p. 267):
A stimulus that naturally and automatically triggers a response.

Conditioned Response (CR) (p. 268):
A learned response to a previously neutral but now conditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Stimulus (CS) (p. 268):
An originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, triggers a conditioned response.

Acquisition (p. 268):
The initial stage of learning when a response is first established and gradually strengthened.

Higher-Order Conditioning (p. 268):
A procedure in which a conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a second conditioned stimulus.

Extinction (p. 269):
The diminishing of a conditioned response when the unconditioned stimulus no longer follows the conditioned stimulus.

Spontaneous Recovery (p. 269):
The reappearance of a weakened conditioned response after a pause.

Generalization (p. 269):
The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus.

Discrimination (p. 270):
The learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and other irrelevant stimuli.

Operant Conditioning (p. 275):
Learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by reinforcement or diminished if followed by punishment.

Law of Effect (p. 275):
Thorndike’s principle that behaviors followed by favorable consequences become more likely, and those followed by unfavorable consequences become less likely.

Operant Chamber (p. 276):
A chamber (Skinner box) containing a bar or key that an animal can manipulate to obtain a reinforcer.

Reinforcement (p. 276):
Any event that strengthens or increases the behavior it follows.

Shaping (p. 276):
Gradually guiding behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior.

Discriminative Stimulus (p. 277):
A stimulus that elicits a response after association with reinforcement.

Positive Reinforcement (p. 277):
Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli (like food or praise) after a response.

Negative Reinforcement (p. 278):
Increasing behaviors by removing or avoiding negative stimuli.

Primary Reinforcer (p. 278):
An innately reinforcing stimulus, such as one satisfying a biological need.

Conditioned Reinforcer (p. 278):
A stimulus that gains its reinforcing power through association with a primary reinforcer.

Reinforcement Schedule (p. 279):
A pattern that defines how often a desired response will be reinforced.

Continuous Reinforcement (p. 279):
Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs.

Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement (p. 279):
Reinforcing a response only part of the time, which results in slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction.

Fixed-Ratio Schedule (p. 279):
Reinforcement after a set number of responses.

Variable-Ratio Schedule (p. 280):
Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.

Fixed-Interval Schedule (p. 280):
Reinforcement after a fixed time period.

Variable-Interval Schedule (p. 280):
Reinforcement at unpredictable time intervals.

Punishment (p. 281):
An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

Biofeedback (p. 289):
A system for electronically recording, amplifying, and feeding back information regarding a subtle physiological state.

Respondent Behavior (p. 289):
Behavior that occurs as an automatic response to some stimulus.

Operant Behavior (p. 289):
Behavior that operates on the environment, producing consequences.

Cognitive Map (p. 297):
A mental representation of the layout of one’s environment.

Latent Learning (p. 297):
Learning that occurs but is not apparent until there is an incentive to demonstrate it.

Insight (p. 297):
A sudden realization of a problem’s solution.

Intrinsic Motivation (p. 297):
A desire to perform a behavior effectively for its own sake.

Extrinsic Motivation (p. 298):
A desire to perform a behavior to receive promised rewards or avoid punishments.

Coping (p. 298):
Alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.

Problem-Focused Coping (p. 298):
Attempting to alleviate stress directly by changing the stressor or how one interacts with it.

Emotion-Focused Coping (p. 298):
Attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs.

Learned Helplessness (p. 299):
The hopelessness and passive resignation learned when unable to avoid repeated adverse events.

External Locus of Control (p. 300):
The perception that chance or outside forces control one’s fate.

Internal Locus of Control (p. 300):
The perception that one controls their own fate.

Self-Control (p. 301):
The ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for long-term rewards.

Observational Learning (p. 304):
Learning by observing others.

Modeling (p. 304):
The process of observing and imitating a specific behavior.

Mirror Neurons (p. 305):
Neurons that fire when performing certain actions or when observing others perform those actions.

Prosocial Behavior (p. 307):
Positive, constructive, helpful behavior.

Ivan Pavlov (p. 266):
Russian physiologist known for discovering classical conditioning with his dog experiments.

John B. Watson (p. 266):
Founder of behaviorism who conducted the Little Albert experiment on classical conditioning.

B. F. Skinner (p. 275):
Behaviorist who developed operant conditioning and the Skinner box.

Edward Thorndike (p. 275):
Psychologist known for the Law of Effect and early work on operant conditioning.

John Garcia (p. 293):
Researched taste aversion and challenged classical conditioning principles by showing biological constraints.

Robert Rescorla (p. 296):
Showed that cognitive processes play a role in classical conditioning, emphasizing predictability.

Edward Tolman (p. 297):
Studied latent learning and cognitive maps in rats.

Albert Bandura (p. 304):
Known for work on observational learning and the Bobo doll experiment.

Here’s a detailed summary of your memory and cognition terms with clear definitions and key points:

Memory (p. 318)

The persistence of learning over time through encoding, storage, and retrieval of information.

Encoding (p. 319)

The process of getting information into the brain in a form usable for memory.

Storage (p. 319)

The retention of encoded information over time.

Retrieval (p. 319)

The process of getting information out of memory storage when needed.

Parallel Processing (p. 319)

The brain’s ability to process many aspects of a problem simultaneously.

Sensory Memory (p. 319)

A brief immediate recording of sensory information (like sights, sounds).

Short-Term Memory (p. 319)

Activated memory that holds a few items briefly before they are stored or forgotten.

Long-Term Memory (p. 319)

The relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system.

Working Memory (p. 320)

A newer understanding of short-term memory that focuses on conscious, active processing of information.

Explicit Memory (p. 320)

Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and declare (declarative memory).

Effortful Processing (p. 320)

Encoding that requires attention and conscious effort.

Automatic Processing (p. 320)

Unconscious encoding of incidental information (space, time, frequency) and well-learned information.

Implicit Memory (p. 320)

Retention independent of conscious recollection (nondeclarative memory).

Iconic Memory (p. 322)

A momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli lasting a fraction of a second.

Echoic Memory (p. 322)

A momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli lasting 3-4 seconds.

Chunking (p. 323)

Organizing items into familiar, manageable units to aid memory.

Mnemonics [nih-MON-iks] (p. 323)

Memory aids, especially techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices.

Spacing Effect (p. 324)

The tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than massed study.

Testing Effect (p. 324)

Enhanced memory after retrieving, rather than simply rereading information.

Shallow Processing (p. 324)

Encoding on a basic level based on structure or appearance of words.

Deep Processing (p. 325)

Encoding semantically, based on meaning, which produces better retention.

Hippocampus (p. 330)

A neural center in the limbic system that helps process explicit memories for storage.

Flashbulb Memory (p. 332)

A clear, vivid memory of an emotionally significant moment or event.

Long-Term Potentiation (LTP) (p. 333)

An increase in synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation; a neural basis for learning and memory.

Recall (p. 334)

A measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier.

Recognition (p. 334)

A measure of memory that only requires identifying previously learned items.

Relearning (p. 334)

A measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material again.

Priming (p. 336)

The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory.

Mood-Congruent Memory (p. 337)

The tendency to recall experiences that are consistent with one's current mood.

Serial Position Effect (p. 337)

Our tendency to recall best the last and first items in a list.

Anterograde Amnesia (p. 342)

An inability to form new memories after an injury.

Retrograde Amnesia (p. 342)

An inability to retrieve information from before an injury.

Proactive Interference (p. 345)

The disruptive effect of prior learning on the recall of new information.

Retroactive Interference (p. 345)

The disruptive effect of new learning on the recall of old information.

Repression (p. 346)

In psychoanalytic theory, the basic defense mechanism that banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories.

Misinformation Effect (p. 347)

Incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event.

Source Amnesia (p. 349)

Attributing an event to the wrong source, often seen in false memories.

Déjà Vu (p. 349)

The eerie sense that “I've experienced this before,” caused by cues from the current situation triggering retrieval of an earlier experience.

Cognition (p. 356)

All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.

Concept (p. 356)

A mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.

Prototype (p. 356)

A mental image or best example of a category.

Creativity (p. 357)

The ability to produce novel and valuable ideas.

Convergent Thinking (p. 357)

Narrowing the available problem solutions to determine the single best solution.

Divergent Thinking (p. 357)

Expanding the number of possible problem solutions (creative thinking).

Algorithm (p. 361)

A methodical, logical rule or procedure that guarantees solving a particular problem.

Heuristic (p. 361)

A simple thinking strategy that often allows efficient problem solving but can lead to errors.

Insight (p. 361)

A sudden realization of a problem's solution.

Confirmation Bias (p. 362)

The tendency to search for information that confirms one’s preconceptions.

Mental Set (p. 363)

A tendency to approach a problem in one particular way, often a way that has been successful before.

Intuition (p. 363)

An effortless, immediate, automatic feeling or thought.

Representativeness Heuristic (p. 364)

Judging the likelihood of things based on how well they seem to represent or match a prototype.

Availability Heuristic (p. 364)

Estimating the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory.

Overconfidence (p. 365)

The tendency to be more confident than correct.

Belief Perseverance (p. 367)

Clinging to one’s initial conceptions even after they have been discredited.

Framing (p. 368)

The way an issue is posed; can significantly affect decisions and judgments.

Language (p. 372)

Our spoken, written, or signed words and the ways we combine them to communicate meaning.

Phoneme (p. 373)

In language, the smallest distinctive sound unit.

Morpheme (p. 373)

The smallest unit that carries meaning, may be a word or a part of a word.

Grammar (p. 373)

The system of rules that enables communication.

Babbling Stage (p. 374)

Beginning at about 4 months, the stage of speech development in which an infant spontaneously utters various sounds.

One-Word Stage (p. 375)

The stage in speech development, from about age 1 to 2, during which a child speaks mostly in single words.

Two-Word Stage (p. 375)

Beginning about age 2, the stage when a child speaks mostly in two-word statements.

Telegraphic Speech (p. 375)

Early speech stage in which a child speaks like a telegram — “go car” — using mostly nouns and verbs.

Aphasia (p. 377)

Impairment of language, usually caused by left hemisphere damage.

Broca’s Area (p. 377)

Controls language expression — an area of the frontal lobe, usually in the left hemisphere, that directs muscle movements involved in speech.

Wernicke’s Area (p. 377)

Controls language reception — a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression.

Linguistic Determinism (p. 379)

The strong form of linguistic relativity hypothesis that language controls the way we think and interpret the world.

People:

Carl Wernicke:
German neurologist known for discovering Wernicke’s area related to language comprehension.

Steven Pinker:
Cognitive psychologist known for work on language acquisition and evolutionary psychology.

Benjamin Lee Whorf:
Linguist famous for proposing the linguistic relativity hypothesis

Motivation (p. 390):
A need or desire that energizes and directs behavior.

Instinct (p. 391):
A complex, unlearned behavior that is rigidly patterned throughout a species.

Drive-Reduction Theory (p. 391):
The idea that a physiological need creates an aroused tension state (a drive) that motivates an organism to satisfy the need.

Homeostasis (p. 391):
The maintenance of a stable internal state.

Incentive (p. 392):
A positive or negative environmental stimulus that motivates behavior.

Yerkes-Dodson Law (p. 392):
The principle that performance increases with arousal only up to a point, beyond which performance decreases.

Hierarchy of Needs (p. 393):
Maslow’s pyramid of human needs, beginning with physiological needs that must first be satisfied before higher-level safety, love, esteem, and self-actualization needs become active.

Glucose (p. 397):
The form of sugar that circulates in the blood and provides the major source of energy for body tissues; low levels trigger hunger.

Set Point (p. 398):
The point at which an individual’s “weight thermostat” is supposedly set; when body falls below this weight, hunger increases and metabolism slows.

Basal Metabolic Rate (p. 398):
The body’s resting rate of energy expenditure.

Sexual Motivation and Physiology

Sexual Response Cycle (p. 406):
The four stages of sexual responding — excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution.

Refractory Period (p. 407):
A resting period after orgasm during which a man cannot achieve another orgasm.

Sexual Dysfunction (p. 407):
A problem that consistently impairs sexual arousal or functioning.

Estrogens (p. 408):
Sex hormones such as estradiol, secreted more by females and contributing to female sex characteristics.

Testosterone (p. 408):
The most important male sex hormone; both males and females have it, but males have more, influencing sex drive.

Emotion and Stress

Emotion (p. 421):
A response of the whole organism involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience.

James-Lange Theory (p. 421):
The theory that our experience of emotion is our awareness of our physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli.

Cannon-Bard Theory (p. 422):
The theory that an emotion-arousing stimulus simultaneously triggers physiological responses and the subjective experience of emotion.

Two-Factor Theory (p. 422):
Schachter and Singer’s theory that to experience emotion, one must be physically aroused and cognitively label the arousal.

Polygraph (p. 428):
A machine, commonly used in lie detection, that measures several physiological responses accompanying emotion.

Facial Feedback Effect (p. 438):
The tendency of facial muscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness.

Health Psychology and Stress Responses

Health Psychology (p. 439):
A subfield of psychology that provides psychology’s contribution to behavioral medicine.

Stress (p. 442):
The process by which we perceive and respond to certain events (stressors) that we appraise as threatening or challenging.

General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) (p. 444):
Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases — alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.

Tend and Befriend Response (p. 445):
Under stress, people (especially women) often provide support to others and seek support from others.

Psychophysiological Illness (p. 448):
Literally “mind-body” illness; any stress-related physical illness, such as hypertension.

Psychoneuroimmunology (p. 448):
The study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health.

Lymphocytes (p. 448):
The two types of white blood cells that are part of the body’s immune system: B lymphocytes form in bone marrow and release antibodies, and T lymphocytes form in the thymus and attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances.

Coronary Heart Disease (p. 451):
The clogging of the vessels that nourish the heart muscle; the leading cause of death in many developed countries.

Type A (p. 452):
Competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and anger-prone people.

Type B (p. 452):
Easygoing, relaxed people.

Key People

Abraham Maslow:
Psychologist known for developing the hierarchy of needs theory of motivation.