11.1 Sexual Development and Orientation

• Sex: One’s physical, biological classification as female or male.

  Dimensions of Biological Sex

• Genetic sex: Sex as indicated by the presence of XX (female) or XY (male) chromosomes.

• Hormonal sex: Sex as indicated by a preponderance of estrogens (female) or androgens (male) in the body.

• Gonadal sex: Sex as indicated by the presence of ovaries (female) or testes (male).

  Genetic Sex

• Genital sex: Sex as indicated by the presence of male or female genitals.

• X chromosome: The female chromosome contributed by the mother; produces a female when paired with another X chromosome and a male when paired with a Y chromosome.

• Y chromosome: The male chromosome contributed by the father produces a male when paired with an X chromosome. Fathers may give either am X or a Y chromosome to their offspring.

  Hormonal and Gonadal Sex

• Gonads: The primary sex glands—the testes in males and ovaries in females.

• Testosterone: A male sex hormone, secreted mainly by the testes and responsible for the development of many male sexual characteristics.

• Intersex person: A person who has genitals suggestive of both sexes.

  Genital Sex

• Primary sexual characteristics: Sex as defined by the genitals and internal reproductive organs.

• Secondary sexual characteristics: Sexual features other than the genitals and reproductive organs—breasts, body shape, facial hair, and so forth.

• Menopause: The stage of life when a female stops menstruating.

  Sexual Orientation

• Sexual orientation: Enduring pattern of attraction to members of the same and/or other sex.

• Heterosexual: A person romantically and erotically attracted to members of the opposite sex.

• Gay/lesbian: A man/woman (respectively) who is romantically and erotically attracted to some-sex persons.

• Bisexual: A person romantically and erotically attracted to both men and women.

• Asexual: A person who is not erotically attracted to either men or women.

  11.2 Gender Identities and Roles

• Gender: Culturally constructed distinctions between male and female characteristics.

• Gender Identity: One’s personal, private sense of maleness or femaleness.

  Gender Identity

• Gender variant (transgender): A condition in which a person’s biological sex does not match his or her preferred gender.

• Gender dysphoria: Distress that may occur when gender identity does not match a person’s physical sex.

  The Role of Biology

• Biological biasing effect: The hypnotized effect that prenatal exposure to sex hormones has on the development of the body, nervous system, and later behavior patterns.

  The Role of Learning

• Gender role socialization: The process of learning gender behaviors considered appropriate for one’s sex in a given culture.

• Instrumental behaviors: Actions directed toward the achievement of some goal.

• Expressive behaviors: Actions that express or communicate emotion or personal feelings.

  Gender Roles

• Gender role: Pattern of behaviors regarded as “male” or “female” within a culture.

• Gender role stereotypes: Oversimplified and widely held beliefs about the basic characteristics of men and women.

• Gender role strain: Stress associated with any conflict between personal identity and the expectations associated with a gender role.

  Psychological Androgyny

• Androgyny: The presence of both “masculine” and “feminine” traits in a single person (as masculinity and femininity are defined within one’s culture).

  11.3 Sexual Responses, Attitudes, and Behaviors

  Human Sexual Response

• Sex drive: The strength of one’s motivation to engage in sexual behavior.

• Castration: Surgical removal of the testicles or ovaries.

• Sterilization: Medical procedures such as vasectomy or tubal ligation that make a man or a woman infertile.

• Masturbation: Producing sexual pleasure or orgasm by directly stimulating the genitals on your own body.

  Sexual Arousal

• Erogenous zones: Areas of the body that produce pleasure, provoke erotic desire, or both.

• Four Sexual Responses:

• Excitement Phase: The first phase of sexual response, indicated by initial signs of sexual arousal.

• Plateau phase: The second phase of sexual response, during which physical arousal is further heightened.

• Orgasm: A climax and release of sexual excitement.

• Resolution (in sexual response): The fourth phase of sexual response, involving a return to lower levels of sexual tension and arousal.

  Male Response

• Ejaculation: The release of sperm and seminal fluid by the male at the time of orgasm.

• Refractory period: A short period after orgasm during which males are unable to again reach orgasm.

  Abandoning the Double Standard

• Double standard (in sexual behavior): Applying different standards for judging the appropriateness of male and female sexual behavior.

  Internet Pornography

• Supernormal stimulus: Any stimulus (often artificial) that is more potent than the natural stimuli that we have evolved to encounter.

  STDs and Safer Sex

• Sexually transmitted disease (STD): A disease that is typically passed from one person to the next by intimate physical contact; a venereal disease.

• Sexual script: An unspoken mental plan that defines a “plot,” dialogue, and actions expected to take place in a sexual encounter.

  11.4 Sexual Relationships

  Fostering Positive Sexual Relationships

• Way to Foster Communication and Intimacy:

  • Be open about feelings

  • Don’t be defensive

  • Don’t be a ‘right fighter”

  • Recognize constructive anger is appropriate

  • Try to see things through your partner’s eyes

  • Don’t be a mind-reader

  Sexual Dysfunctions

• Sexual dysfunctions: Problems with sexual desire, arousal, and response.

  Desire Disorders

• Hypoactive sexual desire: A persistent, upsetting loss of sexual desire.

  Arousal Disorders

• Erectile Disorder:

• Erectile disorder: An inability to maintain an erection for lovemaking.

• Psychogenic: Having psychological origins, rather than physical causes.

• Sensate focus: A form of therapy that directs a couple’s attention to natural sensations of sexual pleasure.

• Female sexual interest/arousal disorder: A lack of interest in sex, lack of physical arousal to sexual stimulation, or both.

  Orgasm Disorders

• Female orgasmic disorder: A persistent inability to reach orgasm during lovemaking.

• Delayed ejaculation: A persistent delay or absence of orgasm during lovemaking.

• Premature ejaculation: Ejaculation that consistently occurs before the man and his partner want it to occur.

• Squeeze technique: A method for inhibiting ejaculation by compressing the tip of the penis.

  Sexual Pain Disorders

• Genito-pelvic pain/penetration disorder: A sexual pain disorder in women involving dyspareunia (genital pain before, during, or after sexual intercourse), usually accompanied by vaginismus (muscle spasms of the vagina).

• Paraphilic disorders: Deviations in sexual behavior such as pedophilia, exhibitionism, fetishism, voyeurism, and so on.

  Sexual Consent and the Crime of Rape

• Acquaintance (date) rape: Forced intercourse that occurs in the context of a date or other voluntary encounter.

• Forcible rape: Sexual intercourse carried out against the victim’s will, under the threat of violence or bodily injury.

• Rape myths: False beliefs about rape tend to blame the victim and increase the likelihood that some men will think that rape is justified.

  11.5 Psychology and Your Skill Set: Civic Engagement

• Civic engagement: Individual and collective actions designed to identify and address issues of public concern.

Chapter In Review:

11.1 Sexual Development and Orientation

11.1.1 Describe the four basic dimensions of biological sex, including the role of hormones in shaping sexual development prenatally and postnatally

The four dimensions of biological sex are genetic sex, gonadal sex, hormonal sex, in genital sex. Sexual development begins with the genetic sex (XX or XY chromosomes) and is then influenced by prenatal hormones, particularly androgens (male sex hormones) and estrogens (female sex hormones). One type of androgen, testosterone, is needed for a male embryo to develop male structures such as a penis and testicles. Sexual development in utero may be atypical when hormones are not present at usual levels, or when the embryo is not sensitive to those hormones. For example, androgen insensitivity syndrome, exposure to progesterone, congenital adrenal hyperplasia, and similar problems may result in development of an intersex individual. Postnatally, estrogens and androgens influence the development of different primary and secondary sexual characteristics in male and females.

11.1.2 Define sexual orientation and outline its causes

Sexual orientation refers to a degree of emotional and erotic attraction to members of the opposite sex, the same sex, both sexes, or neither sex. All four sexual orientations are part of the normal range of human variability. Sexual orientation tends to be stable over time even if sexual behaviors change period similar factors (heredity, biology, and socialization) underlie all sexual orientation.

11.2 Gender Identities and Roles

11.2.1 Outline what is meant by gender identity, including the factors that influence it means for an individual to be gender variant

Gender identity is the subjective sense of being male or female, irrespective of your biological sex. Many researchers believe that prenatal hormones Exeter biological biasing effect that combines with social factors to influence gender identity. However, gender role socialization over prophecies that is, raising children to assume characteristics and roles that are seen as “appropriate” for their biological sex) seems to account for most observed female male gender differences. Gender variant individuals experience a persistent mismatch between their biological sense and their experienced gender.

11.2.2 Explain what is meant by the term gender role

The term gender role refers to a society's favored pattern of behavior for each sex. Traditionally, in western culture, boys are encouraged to behave in ways that are strong and aggressive, while females are expected to behave in ways that are more gentle and caring. These generals may not be applicable in other cultures.

11.2.3 Define psychological androgyny and explain its advantages

People who possess both masculine and feminine traits are androgynous. In our society, androgyny allows for greater adaptability to a range of situations. This flexibility is helpful in relationships and is related to greater life satisfaction.

11.3 Sexual Responses, Attitudes, and Behaviors

11.3.1 Contrast females and males in terms of their sexual response

Sex is a powerful biological motive that finds expression in both men and women and behaviors far outweigh the differences. For example, sexual arousal for both sexes is related to the body's erogenous zones, but mental and emotional reactions are the ultimate source of sexual responsiveness. In addition, the sexual response to both men and women can be divided into the four phases: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution, though women move through the stages more slowly than men. Finally, men and women are similar in the average number of partners they have, and their overall pattern of sexual activity. The frequency of sexual behavior gradually declines for both sexes with increasing age. However, many elderly persons remain sexually active, and large variation exists at all ages.

11.3.2 Explain how sexual attitudes and behaviors have changed over time

Research suggests that people's attitudes about sex, including premarital sex, have become more tolerant. There is less of a double standard around the sexual behaviors of men and women, and people now report having more sexual partners. Young people, in particular, are more likely now than in the past to engage in casual sex. People have greater access to pornography through online websites. More liberal attitudes and behaviors related to sex mean that people increasingly must deal with sexually transmitted diseases such as HIV. Other industrialized nations have followed the same pattern while developing nations remain more conservative.

11.4 Sexual Relationship

11.4.1 Outline the factors that contribute to healthy sexual relationships

Although solutions exist for many sexual adjustment problems, good communication in a healthy relationship are the real keys to sexual satisfaction. This includes being honest about your feelings, avoiding defensiveness, arguing constructively, trying to take your partner's perspective, and avoiding the tendency to know what your partner is thinking or feeling if you haven't asked.

11.4.2 Outline the most common sexual dysfunction

Problems with sexual function can involve desire, arousal (e.g., erectile disorder, female arousal disorder), orgasm (female orgasmic disorder, displayed ejaculation, premature ejaculation), or pain. Behavioral methods and counseling techniques have been developed to alleviate many sexual problems.

11.4.3 Define what is meant by a paraphilic disorder, and provide some examples

Paraphilic disorders are compulsive sexual behaviors that tend to emotionally handicapped people. The paraphilic disorders include pedophilia, exhibitionism, voyeurism, futurism, fetishism, sexual masochism, sexual sadism, and transvestic fetishism. The most common paraphilia disorders are pedophilia and exhibitionism.

11.4.4 Define what is meant by sexual harassment, and provide some examples

Sexual harassment refers to unwanted sexual comments, gestures, or actions that are directed at people because of their biological sex, gender identity, or sexual orientation period it may include unwanted sexual attention, sexual coercion, and gender harassment.

11.4.5 Define what constitutes rape, and what is meant by “rape myths”

Rape refers to situations that involve penetration of the vagina or anus without the consent of the victim. Rape includes unwanted sex results from the perpetrator threats to harm the victim operates or the victim's family or friends) as well as situations in which victim cannot provide consent because they are unconscious or impaired in some way. Rape myths or false beliefs grounded in traditional gender role stereotypes. One example is the (false) belief that a man should persist in attempts at sexual intimacy even when the woman says no.

11.5 Psychology and Your Skill Set: Civil Engagement

11.5.1 Explain what is meant by civic engagement

Civic engagement refers to individual and collective actions designed to identify and address issues of public concern. Acts of civic engagement include working to raise awareness about an issue, fundraising, providing labor or expertise to A cause, as well as political behavior such as marching and rallies, writing letters to government officials, and voting.

11.5.2 Outline the individual and societal benefits associated with civic engagement

A society with civically engaged citizens is typically healthier, more economically prosperous, and has a lower crime rate. Individuals who are civically engaged have a higher self-esteem, more positive social relationships, and better mental and physical health.

11.5.3 Create a plan to become more civically engaged

Being civically engaged begins with making sure that you are informed about the issues that are important in your community, state, and the country more broadly. Exercise your right to vote to demonstrate your commitment to those issues period of course, civic engagement also includes helping with causes you feel are important. Today, young adults often use technology as a means of engaging with causes they care about, and this means that they can become involved with global issues on a global scale. However, it's also effective to direct your energy toward more local causes by connecting with community agencies, charities, and churches. Regardless of which route you choose, we hope that after reading this section, you'll be better able to imagine how you can use your talents to help others.