4 perspectives to understand motivated behavior are Instinct Theory/evolutionary perspective, drive-reduction theory, arousal theory, and Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Instinct theory used to classify all behaviors as instincts, emphasizes instinct (behavior that is unlearned)
Drive-reduction theory focuses on physiological needs to create an aroused/motivated state that pushes to reduce the need
Able to maintain homeostasis through drive reduction
arousal theory states that human motivation aims to seek optimum levels of arousal
In the hierarchy of Needs, needs take priority with hunger and thirst needing to be satisfied the most.
motives like food can hijack consciousness (hallucinations/ only think about need)
hunger, thirty, fatigue, and sexual arousal can cause little else to seem to matter
areas of the hypothalamus secrete appetite-stimulating/suppressing hormones
there is a point at which your “weight thermostat” may be set. meaning that when the body falls below a certain weight the metabolic rate will combine to restore the lost weight
when feeling tense or depressed we intake high-calorie foods because carbs boost the neurotransmitter serotonin which has a calming effect
preference for sweet and salty foods are universal
classical conditioning can lead to a liking or dislike of certain tastes
situational influences on eating include aroused appetite, serving size, friends and food, selections/variety, and nudging nutrition
sexual motivation is natures way of making people procreate
hormones involved in sexual behavior are testosterone and estrogen
the sexual response cycle has 4 stages of sexual responding
there are external and internal stimuli for sex
sexual response to stimuli habituates. Ex. showing ankles would arouse a man
external stimuli could be seeing, hearing, or reading erotic material and can alter perspective on intercourse
brain is the most significant of sex organs
Affiliation Need: the deep need to belong
beniftis of belonging include boosting health/well-being, feel warmer, more satisfying and rich relationships, and makes life meaningful
belonging leads to loyalty to those in the group while hostilities to those outside
love is a natural pain killer
negative aspects of social networking include spending too much time one, less likely to know and lean on real-world neighbors
more online socializing and gaming has correlated with lower grades and increased anxiety/depression
people with high achievement motivation achieve more
James-Lange Theory believes arousal comes before emotion, but Cannon-Baard believed arousal and emotion occur simultaneously.
In the Cannon-Bard Theory emotion-triggering stimulus traveled to sympathetic nervous system, causing body’s arousal, and to the brain’s cortex causing awareness of emotion
Shachter-Singer Two Factor Theory states arousal + Label = emotion; arousal fuesl emotion and cognition channels it.
arousal spills over from one event to next
several psychologists believe we have many emotional reactions apart from, or before our conscious interpretation of a situation
primary emotions include anger, fear, disgust, sadness, and happiness
you can tell if someone is bored from their perspiration, pupil size, breathing, and heart rate
several brain regions multitask when processing or showing mention
positive moods tend to rigger more in the left frontal lobe
negative moods tend to trigger more into right frontal lobe?
when telling emotions facial expressions and brain activity are more reliable than heart rate, breathing and perspiration
the brain can detect subtle expressions but much harder than to discern deceit
women have superior intuition and greater sensitivity to nonverbal cues than men
women tend to be more emotionally responsive and expressive, empathic, display empathy, and experience emotional events with more brain activation in areas sensitive to emotion
facial expressions and emotions (distress, defiant, happy) tend to be more universal than gestures (hand movements)
facial feedback effect- tendency of facialmuscle states to trigger corresponding feelings such as fear, anger, or happiness
behavior feedback effect- tendency of behavior to influence our own and other’s thoughts, feeling, and actions
stess arises from how we appraise events
short-lived stress or perceived challenges can have positive effects (ex. being energised and satisfied with our lives
extreme or prolonged stress can harm us (ex. trigger sirky decisions and unhealthy behaviors)
main categories of stress include catastrophes, significant life changes, daily hassles/ social stress
General Adaptation Syndrome is Selye’s concept of the body’s adaptive response to stress in three phases- alarm, resistance, and eshaustion
a stress respond is the tend-and-befriend response which can be common in women
persistan stress causes negative effects on the human such as lowering resistance to infection, treats to mental well-being, cancer, and heart disease, headaches, and high blood pressure
ways to reduce stress include aerobic exercise (ex. jogging, swimming, biking) and relaxation and meditation
moderate exceise adds about 7 hours for every exercise hour
psychoanalytic theory proposed that childhood sexuality and unconscious motivation influence personality
humanistic theory focuses on our inner capacities for growth and self-fulfilment
Freud believed the mind was mostly hidden because we repressed a mass of unacceptable passions and thoughts which powerfully influence us
there are three interacting systems; the id, ego, and superego
Freud believed children pass through series of psychosexual stages
freud proposed that the ego protects itself with defense mechanisms
defense mechanisms include regressions, reaction formation, projection, rationalization, displacement, sublimation, denial
projective tests are designed to give insight on a person’s unconscious mind
modern research challenges the idea of repression
factor analysis helps identify basic components of a trait
Hans and Sybil Eysenck and believed we can reduce our normal individual variations to two dimensions, extraversion-introversion and emotional stability-instability
extraverts seek stimulation because their normal brain arousal is low
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory is the gold standard to get personalities
big 5 factors are conscientiousness, agreeableness, neuroticism, openness, and extraversion
Big 5 research shows that traits stabilize after 40 years, can be somewhat inherited, size and thickness of brain tisses correlates with several big 5 traits, and can apply across different cultures well
personality test measure the average
reciprocal determinaism is the interacting influences of behavior, internal cognition,and environment
we are products and creators of experiences/situations
The best predictor of future behavior is the person’s past behavior in similar situations
possible self is the vision of the self you dream of becoming
higher self esteem usually leads to fewers sleepless nights, succumb less easily to pressures to conform, more persistent at difficult tasks, and more effort to repair their mood
artificially boosting self esteem does not work to produce better results
excessive optimum can blind us to real risks, can be self-defeating
people are often most overconfident when most incompetent
Dunning-Kruger effect is needing competence to know competence
self-serving Bias is seeing oneself favorably