Notes on Race, Ethnicity, and Racism
BASIC CONCEPTS
Key terms and distinctions
Race vs ethnicity: race is a socially constructed category rooted in beliefs about fundamental differences among humans linked to phenotype and ancestry; ethnicity is a social identity based on ancestry (perceived or real) and culture. Race is often treated as fixed, but sociologically it is variable across time and place (social construction).
Minority group: a group that is historically disadvantaged relative to the dominant group in wealth, power, and prestige; this status yields some degree of solidarity and shared social position, even if numerical size may vary.
Why race is contested
Biological basis: there are no clear-cut, biologically defined races; genetic diversity within so-called racial groups can be as great as between-group diversity.
Race as a social and political construct: categories used by the Census Bureau have changed over time, demonstrating that race is socially constructed and tied to power, labor needs, prejudice, and policy.
Census as a lens on race
Early census (1790 onward): race determined by sight; classifications were arbitrary and often inaccurate.
1960 shift: self-reported race with predefined categories.
Historical changes illustrate that categories once considered normative (e.g., South Asian as White) shift with social and political needs.
2023 advisory panel: proposed new single-question approach with a dedicated MENA category and an option to indicate multiple ethnicities after identifying race; decision expected by 2024.
Examples of shifting categories over time (illustrative, not exhaustive)
South Asia: Indians and Pakistanis were classified as White in earlier censuses, then Asian by the 1980s.
Mexicans: White in the 19th century, non-White in the 1930s, White in the 1940s, then Hispanic in the 1970s.
Arab Americans: lacked an ethnoracial option; led to advocacy for a MENA category (advisory panel recommended 2023; decision expected by 2024).
Multiracial identities and census debates
Some individuals identify as multiracial; Census strategies for reporting often yield the lowest possible estimate of non-Hispanic White population due to multi-race reporting rules.
Richard Alba (2016) argues that mixed-race individuals often self-identify with White categories and may live in White neighborhoods, challenging the majority-minority narrative.
The sociological concept of minority is not purely numerical; it encompasses historical disadvantage and group solidarity.
Practical implications of census evolution
Changing categories influence policy, resource allocation, representation, and perceptions of national identity.
Concept checks
How do changing racial categories in the census demonstrate that race is socially constructed? — The categories shift due to social, political, and economic pressures, showing that race is not a fixed biological reality but a social construct.
Distinguish ethnicity from race: Race is linked to perceived biological differences and social significance; ethnicity relates to culture, language, history, and ancestry, activated in various contexts.
Why are Hispanics and African Americans considered minority groups? — They have historically faced social, political, and economic disadvantage relative to the dominant group, shaping group identity and solidarity.
THINKING ABOUT RACISM
Core components and definitions
Racism can refer to explicit beliefs in racial supremacy or to practices such as stereotyping that maintain minority subordination.
Two main components: prejudice (attitudes) and discrimination (behavioral consequences).
Prejudice operates through stereotypes and can involve displacement and scapegoating, where hostility is redirected toward a powerless group as a target for blame.
Displacement, scapegoating, and projection
Scapegoating: blaming a less powerful group for broader societal problems (e.g., blaming minorities for economic woes).
Projection: attributing one’s own undesirable desires or characteristics to others (e.g., accusing minorities of traits that the majority harbors).
Major contemporary concepts
Color-blind racism (Bonilla-Silva, 2006): maintains inequality by claiming not to see race, while reproducing racial advantages; relies on neutral language and abstract categories to avoid acknowledging inequality.
White privilege: unearned advantages that Whites experience in daily life; McIntosh’s metaphor of an “invisible knapsack” of benefits (e.g., housing opportunities, lack of surveillance, representation, and social ease).
Institutional racism: racism embedded in the practices and structures of major social institutions (education, police, health care, labor markets) rather than in individual acts alone.
Overt racism: explicit acts, beliefs, or statements expressing racial superiority or racial hatred; resurged in public political discourse in recent years (e.g., 2016–2020 U.S. politics).
Microaggressions: subtle, often unintentional slights or insults toward people of color, typically from well-meaning White individuals; examples include questioning someone’s birthplace or implying they “speak good English.”
How these concepts connect to American society today
Some argue racism operates through systemic institutions more than individual prejudice; others highlight the persistence of overt acts alongside subtler forms.
The dialog around microaggressions reflects ongoing debates about the psychology of racism and the social costs of subtle discrimination.
RACE AND RACISM IN HISTORICAL AND COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE
Why studying history matters
Europe’s colonial expansion and Western domination created enduring ethnic divisions worldwide; migration, slavery, and labor demands shaped global demographics today.
Western colonialism produced ethnic hierarchies and racial ideologies that justified domination and exploitation.
The Rise of Racism: multiple factors
Exploitative labor relations and the slave trade legitimized racial hierarchies.
Symbolic associations: White as purity, Black as evil; these symbolic links were culturally rooted and reinforced by pseudo-scientific ideas.
The invention and diffusion of the concept of race by European thought; Gobineau’s three-race theory (White, Black, Yellow) framed racial superiority myths used to justify inequality and political domination.
Blacks in the United States: historical trajectory
Enslavement: by 1780, nearly 4 million enslaved individuals in the American South; enslaved people resisted through culture, art (e.g., early African American music), and occasional rebellions.
Black Codes and Jim Crow: post-slavery legal and social mechanisms restricted rights and mobility.
Internal migration: Great Migration moved many African Americans from the rural South to urban centers in the North and West; by 1900, over 90% lived in the South, but today about three-quarters reside in Northern urban areas.
Civil Rights Movement: NAACP and NUL organizations; Brown v. Board of Education (1954) declared segregated facilities inherently unequal; Rosa Parks’ 1955 Montgomery Bus Boycott; March on Washington (1963); Civil Rights Act (1964), desegregation and voting rights laws.
Hispanics and Latinos in the United States
Distinctions: Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, Cubans; Hispanics/Latinos are defined by origin and language; the four major groups by population: Mexico, Puerto Rico, El Salvador, Cuba (with significant populations from other Latin American countries).
Demographics and geography: as of 2020, Hispanics totaled over 62 million (about 18.5% of the population in 2020); large growth since 1970 and 2000; distribution concentrated in states like Arizona, California, Florida, Texas, New York, and Illinois.
Migration history and assimilation: Mexican immigration has included unauthorized immigration; post-1965 policy changes (Immigration and Nationality Act Amendments, and 1986 IRCA) reshaped demographics; ongoing debates about assimilation vs preserving ethnic identity.
Asian Americans
Population and diversity: about 6% of the U.S. population; major groups include Chinese, Indian, Filipino, Vietnamese, Korean, Japanese; distinct experiences across subgroups.
Historical traumas and policy responses: Page Act (1875), Chinese Exclusion Act (1882); Japanese American internment during World War II; postwar growth, high intermarriage rates among some groups, and the 1965 Immigration Act opening immigration from Asia.
Contemporary challenges: model minority stereotype; but real disparities exist in education, employment, and encounters with discrimination and violence (e.g., anti-Asian hate in 2020–2021 linked to the Covid-19 pandemic).
Models of ethnic integration
Assimilation: immigrant groups adopt the attitudes and language of the dominant culture.
Melting pot: cultures merge and create a new composite culture.
Pluralism: ethnic cultures exist separately but participate in the larger society.
Multiculturalism: ethnic groups exist separately and equally, with formal recognition of diversity.
Global migration and four migration models (post-1945)
Classic model (countries of immigrants like the U.S., Canada, Australia): openness to immigration and paths to citizenship.
Colonial model (France, UK): preferences for immigrants from former colonies; path to citizenship often restricted.
Guest workers model (Germany, Switzerland, Belgium): temporary admission to fill labor needs; citizenship often limited or denied.
Illegal/undocumented model: tightening immigration controls producing irregular migration patterns.
Global migration systems approach (macro- and micro-level factors)
Macro: political conditions, migration laws, economic changes.
Micro: migrants’ resources, knowledge, social networks, and social capital.
Example: Turkish migrants in Germany – macro drivers (labor needs, guest worker policy) and micro-level social networks and family links.
Four tendencies (Castles & Miller, 1993) in global migration patterns
Acceleration, Diversification, Globalization, Feminization.
These shifts reflect larger economic and social changes including labor markets, family dynamics, and gender roles in migration.
Global diasporas
Diaspora: dispersal of a population from homeland to foreign areas, often with trauma, memory, and a shared identity.
Cohen’s categories (Global Diasporas, 1997): victim, imperial, labor, trade, cultural.
Shared features of diasporas: forced/voluntary movement, homeland memory, sustained ethnic identity, solidarity, host-society tensions, potential contributions to pluralist societies.
Debates around Cohen’s typology: some argue it oversimplifies experiences; still, it shows diasporas are ongoing, non-static processes.
Unanswered questions (immigration and inequality)
Current state of immigration: over 44.8 million foreign-born in the U.S. (13.7% of the population in 2022); more than 1 million new immigrants each year.
Regional origins: since 2010, more Asians than Hispanics have immigrated to the U.S.; about 53% from Latin America (including 26% from Mexico) and 30% from Asia (as of 2022).
Policy history: 1965 Act Amendments (family reunification emphasis) and 1986 IRCA (amnesty for many illegal immigrants).
Unauthorized immigrants: estimates around 10.5 million in 2017; ongoing debates about fiscal costs and benefits; immigrant workers represented about 17.4% of the U.S. workforce in 2019; about 4.6% of the workforce is undocumented.
Economic perspectives on immigration:
Borjas (1994): recent immigrants are lower-skilled and reduce wages for the least-skilled natives; argue net negative effects on lower-skilled natives’ job prospects.
Simon (1981, 1989): immigrants add to the labor force and contribute to tax revenues; their children become productive taxpayers; benefits may be long-term.
Some analyses show mixed effects: immigrants contribute to GDP, but fiscal costs of services can be complex to quantify; the size and characteristics of immigrant populations influence outcomes.
Employment and earnings gaps by race/ethnicity (illustrative):
In 2021, unemployment rates: Whites ~3.6%, Blacks ~7.1%, Hispanics ~5.3%, Asians ~4.0% (BLS); among those with a bachelor’s degree or more, White 2.0%, Black 2.9%, Hispanic 2.9%.
Median weekly earnings: Black men ~81.2% of White men; Black women ~89.9% of White women.
Median household income (2021): Blacks ~$48,297; Whites ~$77,999; Blacks’ wealth ~8% of White wealth (2019 data).
Hispanic income and poverty: 2021 median Hispanic income around 77% of non-Hispanic White; poverty around 17% for Hispanics vs 19.5% for Blacks; wealth gaps significant across groups.
The civil rights movement: progress and limits
Black middle class expansion through education and professional advancement; persistent underclass and poverty for some Black communities; debates on whether progress is due to policy changes, economic transformation, or persistent barriers.
Health disparities and social determinants
Covid-19 highlighted the health impact of racial inequality: higher infection, hospitalization, and death rates among Blacks and Latinos due to higher prevalence of comorbidities, lower access to care, and exposure through essential work.
Infant mortality and life expectancy gaps: from 1995–2017 some improvements, but a persistent Black-White gap; life expectancy gaps have narrowed but persist due to structural factors like poverty and access to care.
Residential segregation and education
Segregation persists in urban areas; “double segregation” (race and class) in some schooling environments; White flight contributes to continued schools’ resource gaps; Black students disproportionately attend high-poverty, racially concentrated schools.
Political power and representation
Barack Obama’s presidency marked a historic milestone; Black representation in political offices expanded since the 1960s; as of 2023, Congress included 53 Black members and 46 Hispanic members; the distribution of power remains unequal across states and national institutions.
Reducing ethnic conflict
Genocide and ethnically targeted mass violence have occurred (Armenian genocide, Holocaust, Rwandan genocide, Bosnian and Kosovar conflicts, Darfur).
Ethnic cleansing and international interventions illustrate the challenges of peacekeeping and the limits of external enforcement.
Conflict, democracy, and markets
Some scholars argue that liberal democracy and market economies reduce conflict, while others (e.g., Amy Chua) warn that “market-dominant minorities” can trigger ethnic backlash if minority wealth concentrates in ways that provoke majority resentment.
Chua emphasizes legal and civil-society institutions as essential for peaceful coexistence; market democracy alone may not prevent ethnic conflicts without robust governance.
UNANSWERED QUESTIONS
Current state of immigration to the United States
Approximately 44.8 million foreign-born residents (13.7% of the population) as of recent data; annual arrivals exceed 1 million.
Shifts in origins: since 2010, more immigrants from Asia than from Latin America; 53% of Latin American origin immigrants come from Mexico; 30% originate from Asia (as of 2022).
Policy history: the 1965 Immigration and Nationality Act Amendments pivoted toward family reunification; the 1986 IRCA provided amnesty for many undocumented workers.
Unauthorized immigration: estimates around 10.5 million in 2017; ongoing policy debates about economic impact and fiscal costs; many unauthorized forming long-term settlement patterns.
Inequality and oppression by race/ethnicity in the U.S.
The U.S. economy relies on immigrant and racial minority labor in many essential sectors; gaps in income, wealth, education, health, housing, and political power persist across groups; the degree and nature of inequality vary by group and over time.
Economic debates about immigrants
Borjas’ view emphasizes potential negative wage effects on low-skilled natives due to immigration; negative effects are argued to be larger for the least-skilled workers.
Pro-immigration perspectives emphasize the positive economic contributions: higher labor force participation, tax revenue, and potential productivity gains; immigrant children contribute later as taxpayers.
Fiscal and social costs
Immigrant impact on public services and budget balances is complex; estimates vary by the composition of immigrants (skill levels, age structure) and by policy design (education, health care, enforcement).
Does immigration reduce or widen inequality overall?
The evidence is mixed: impacts depend on skill mix, policy context, and macroeconomic conditions; long-run gains may offset short-run costs if programs invest in education and integration.
EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT AND ITS RACIALLY STRUCTURED EFFECTS
Educational outcomes by group
Overall U.S. high school graduation rate reached 87% in 2019–2020.
Graduation rates by group (approximate): Asian/Pacific Islanders ~93%; White ~90%; Hispanic ~83%; Black ~81%; American Indian/Alaska Native ~75% (NCES, 2023a).
Among Blacks 25+ with bachelor’s degrees: 28.1% (2021); for Whites 41.9% (2021); for Hispanics 20.6% (2021).
The share of Blacks with bachelor’s degrees rose from ~19.9% (2011) to ~28.1% (2021).
Educational gaps persist for Hispanics relative to Whites and Blacks, though the gap is narrowing for some groups.
Contextual factors
Enrollment at elite colleges accounts for a small percentage of total enrollment; recent Supreme Court cases (Harvard and UNC) limiting race-conscious admissions are unlikely to drastically alter overall educational attainment at the national level.
The “American dream” narrative for some groups coexists with continued disparities in access to higher education and in lifetime earnings.
EMPLOYMENT, INCOME, AND WEALTH
Labor market outcomes by race/ethnicity (2021–2023)
Unemployment rates (2021): Whites 3.6%; Blacks 7.1%; Hispanics 5.3%; Asians 4.0% (BLS).
Unemployment rates (2023, by education): Whites 3.6% (overall), Blacks 7.1%, Hispanics 5.3%, Asians 4.0%; college-educated: Whites 2.0%, Blacks 2.9%, Hispanics 2.9% (BLS).
Median weekly earnings (2023): Black men earned 81.2% of White men's earnings; Black women earned 89.9% of White women’s earnings.
Median household income (2021): Blacks ~$48,297; Whites ~$77,999; Black household wealth ~8% of White wealth (2019 data).
Poverty: Hispanics ~17%; Blacks ~19.5% (2021).
Trends and interpretation
Despite progress in educational attainment, large gaps persist in earnings, wealth, and poverty rates.
The Black-White income gap has remained relatively stable since the 1970s; wealth gaps are especially large, with Blacks holding far less net worth than Whites.
Among Hispanics, earlier assimilation patterns obscured by high poverty and variable educational attainment; gaps persist but show improvement in bachelor’s degree attainment over time.
The role of policy and labor markets
Economic outcomes for minorities depend on access to quality schools, job opportunities, networks, and policies that reduce discrimination in hiring, wages, and advancement.
HEALTH, HOUSING, AND RESIDENTIAL SEGREGATION
Health disparities
Covid-19 disproportionately affected Black and Latino populations due to higher prevalence of comorbidities, socioeconomic factors, occupational exposure, and access to care.
Infant mortality and life expectancy gaps narrowed somewhat between 1990 and 2017, but persistent disparities remain; higher rates of obesity, hypertension, and diabetes among people of color contribute to worse health outcomes.
Residential segregation
Segregation remains substantial, with White flight and concentrated poverty contributing to “double segregation” in many urban centers (racial and class-based segregation in schools and housing).
Studies show Black students are often concentrated in schools with high percentages of minority and low-income students, contributing to persistent achievement gaps.
Education and neighborhood effects
Segregation in housing and schooling shapes access to resources, quality schooling, and long-term opportunities, reinforcing cycles of disadvantage for racial and ethnic minorities.
POLITICAL POWER AND REPRESENTATION
Political representation
Black and Latino political participation and representation have increased since the Civil Rights era, but representation in Congress remains not proportional to population shares (as of 2023: 53 Black members and 46 Hispanic members in Congress; several Black and Hispanic Senators and a broader distribution of representation across states).
Implications for policy
Representation can influence policy priorities, funding allocations, and social programs affecting education, housing, health, and policing.
HOW CAN ETHNIC CONFLICT BE REDUCED?
Genocide, ethnic cleansing, and international interventions
History includes genocides (e.g., Armenian, Holocaust, Rwanda, Bosnia, Kosovo, Darfur) and episodes of ethnic cleansing (e.g., Bosnia, Kosovo).
International interventions have produced mixed outcomes: some short-term stabilization but long-term tensions and demographic shifts continue in many cases.
Political and economic pathways to peace
Democracy and market economies can reduce conflict when supported by robust legal frameworks and civil society.
Amy Chua’s argument (World on Fire, 2003): in countries with market-dominant minorities, democratic and economic reforms alone can precipitate backlash if the rule of law and civil rights protections are weak.
The need for strong institutions that protect minorities, ensure equal rights, and prevent the entrenchment of wealth concentration among any one group.
CONFLICT AND ECONOMIC POWER
Market-dominant minorities and conflict risk
Chua argues that when a small minority controls a disproportionate share of economic power, majority groups may seek to reclaim resources through coercive means, triggering ethnic conflict.
The Indonesian Chinese example: during and after Suharto, centralized wealth among a minority minority coincided with social backlash; democratization did not automatically resolve underlying economic disparities.
Policy implications
Peaceful coexistence requires law-based protections, inclusive economic opportunities, and checks on concentrated economic power.
The role of civil society, rule of law, education, and equitable access to resources is central to preventing ethnically motivated violence.
SUMMARY OF KEY THEMES AND CONNECTIONS
Race is a social construction whose meaning shifts with policy, power, and social attitudes; ethnicity is a cultural and ancestral identity activated in specific contexts.
Racism operates on multiple levels: individual prejudice, discriminatory practices, and systemic/institutional arrangements that reproduce inequality.
Color-blind racism reframes inequality as natural or nonracially motivated, while White privilege highlights unearned advantages that come with whiteness.
Historical processes of colonization, slavery, migration, and policy choices have shaped contemporary racial and ethnic dynamics in the United States.
There are multiple models of ethnic integration; no single path guarantees harmony, and real-world outcomes depend on institutions, social capital, and political will.
Immigration and globalization create both opportunities and tensions; debates about economic impact are longstanding and continue to evolve with demographics and policy changes.
Health, education, income, and wealth gaps persist across racial and ethnic groups, even as progress is made in some areas; addressing structural factors is essential for meaningful change.
Reducing ethnic conflict requires robust legal protections, inclusive economic development, and international and domestic commitments to democracy, civil rights, and social equity.
Understanding the historical context of racial issues is crucial to addressing present-day disparities, as many systemic inequalities are rooted in longstanding legacies of discrimination and marginalization.
GLOSSARY (selected terms mentioned)
minority group
A group of people in a given society who, because of their distinct physical or cultural characteristics, find themselves in situations of inequality compared with the dominant group within that society.
race
A socially constructed category rooted in the belief that there are fundamental differences among humans, associated with phenotype and ancestry.
ethnicity
Cultural values and norms that distinguish the members of a given group from others. An ethnic group is one whose members share a distinct awareness of a common cultural identity, separating them from other groups. In virtually all societies, ethnic differences are associated with variations in power and material wealth. Where ethnic differences are also racial, such divisions are sometimes especially pronounced.
racism
The attribution of characteristics of superiority or inferiority to a population sharing certain physically inherited characteristics. Racism is one specific form of prejudice, focusing on physical variations among people. Racist attitudes became entrenched during the period of Western colonial expansion, but seem also to rest on mechanisms of prejudice and discrimination found in human societies today.
prejudice
The holding of preconceived ideas about an individual or group, ideas that are resistant to change even in the face of new information. Prejudice may be either positive or negative.
stereotyping
Thinking in terms of fixed and inflexible categories.
scapegoats
Individuals or groups blamed for wrongs that were not of their doing.
discrimination
Behavior that denies to the members of a particular group resources or rewards that can be obtained by others. Discrimination must be distinguished from prejudice: Individuals who are prejudiced against others may not engage in discriminatory practices against them; conversely, people may act in a discriminatory fashion toward a group even though they are not prejudiced against that group.
White privilege
The unacknowledged and unearned assets that benefit Whites in their everyday lives.
institutional racism
The idea that racism occurs through the respected and established institutions of society rather than through hateful actions of some bad people.
racial microaggressions
Small slights, indignities, or acts of disrespect that are hurtful to people of color even though they are often perpetrated by well-meaning Whites.
scientific racism
The use of scientific research or data to justify or reify beliefs about the superiority or inferiority of particular racial groups. Much of the “data” used to justify such claims is flawed or biased.
apartheid
The system of racial segregation established in South Africa.
assimilation
The acceptance of a minority group by a majority population, in which the new group takes on the values and norms of the dominant culture.
melting pot
The idea that ethnic differences can be combined to create new patterns of behavior drawing on diverse cultural sources.
pluralism
A model for ethnic relations in which all ethnic groups in the United States retain their independent and separate identities yet share equally in the rights and powers of citizenship.
multiculturalism
A condition in which ethnic groups exist separately and share equally in economic and political life.
immigration
The movement of people into one country from another for the purpose of settlement.
emigration
The movement of people out of one country to settle in another.
diaspora
The dispersal of an ethnic population from an original homeland into foreign areas, often in a forced manner or under traumatic circumstances.
affirmative action
Policies that grant preferential treatment to groups regarded as disadvantaged or subject to discrimination.
genocide
The systematic, planned destruction of a racial, political, or cultural group.
ethnic cleansing
The creation of ethnically homogeneous territories through the mass expulsion of other ethnic populations.
segregation
The practice of keeping racial and ethnic groups physically separate, thereby maintaining the superior position of the dominant group.