HONS 1102 Review for midterm w/ problem + solution

1. Eusebius, Life of Constantine

• Problem: Early Christianity was facing internal division, external persecution, and instability within the Roman Empire.

• Solution: Eusebius describes Constantine’s rise to power and his pivotal role in legalizing and supporting Christianity through the Edict of Milan (313 CE), which allowed religious freedom, ending persecution of Christians. He is depicted as a key figure in promoting Christianity’s legitimacy within the Roman Empire.

2. Letters of Arius and Alexander

• Problem: Arius, a Christian priest, argued that Jesus Christ (the Son) was created by God and thus not divine in the same way as the Father. This led to a theological dispute within the Church, known as the Arian Controversy.

• Solution: Alexander, the bishop of Alexandria, defended the doctrine that the Son was of the same essence (homoousios) as the Father, leading to the Council of Nicaea (325 CE), where the Nicene Creed was established to affirm the full divinity of Christ.

3. Creeds

• Problem: The early Christian Church needed to establish a unified understanding of doctrine and beliefs to settle theological disputes like Arianism and Gnosticism.

• Solution: The Creeds (such as the Nicene Creed) became formalized statements of faith to articulate key Christian doctrines about the nature of God, Jesus Christ, and the Holy Spirit, ensuring unity in belief across Christian communities.

4. Tao Qian (NAWL 1091-1104)

• Problem: Tao Qian, a Chinese poet, reflects the tension between the secular world (politics and social responsibilities) and the desire for spiritual peace and simplicity.

• Solution: Tao Qian’s poetry represents the retreat from politics into rural life, embracing a more peaceful, harmonious existence inspired by Daoist principles of simplicity, naturalness, and self-reliance.

5. Chinese Buddhism (SCT 415-26, 433-34, 444-52, 471-74, 481-82, 485-89)

• Problem: China was grappling with the arrival and integration of Buddhism, a foreign religious tradition that challenged Confucian and Daoist norms.

• Solution: Chinese Buddhism adapted to local cultural practices by blending with indigenous ideas, leading to the development of Chinese Chan Buddhism (which later became Zen in Japan), emphasizing meditation and enlightenment as central practices.

6. Augustine, Confessions (NAWL 49-56, 58-62)

• Problem: Augustine faced deep personal conflict regarding sin, conversion, and his search for true fulfillment.

• Solution: Confessions describes Augustine’s spiritual journey from a sinful life to conversion to Christianity, showcasing the grace of God as transformative and the importance of self-reflection in understanding divine truth.

7. Augustine, City of God (WCH 195-206, ch. 4, 10, 13, 17, 26, 27)

• Problem: The fall of Rome in 410 CE led many to blame Christianity for the Empire's collapse.

• Solution: Augustine defends Christianity by arguing that the "City of God" (the eternal, spiritual kingdom) is distinct from the "City of Man" (the temporal, earthly realm). Christianity provides the true meaning of life and eternal security, while the fall of Rome reflects the frailty of human civilizations.

8. Augustine, On the Jews (CP 8-10)

• Problem: Augustine addresses the growing tension between Christians and Jews, particularly in terms of their rejection of Christ.

• Solution: Augustine argues that Jews should not be persecuted but should be allowed to continue their role in history as a people who have preserved the Hebrew scriptures, which set the foundation for Christianity.

9. Athanasius, Life of Anthony (WCH 131-44)

• Problem: Early Christian ascetics and monks faced the challenge of living a life of holiness while separating themselves from worldly distractions.

• Solution: Athanasius’ biography of Saint Anthony the Great illustrates the ideals of Christian monasticism, focusing on Anthony’s life of extreme asceticism, his spiritual battles, and his ultimate role as a spiritual leader and guide for others.

10. Basil, Longer Rule (WCH 144-47)

• Problem: Monastic communities were growing, and there was a need for standardized rules to guide their daily life and spiritual practices.

• Solution: Basil wrote the Longer Rule, establishing guidelines for monastic life, emphasizing communal living, prayer, and work, as well as the need for obedience to the abbot (monastic superior).

11. Benedict, The Rule of St. Benedict (ICCW 175-89)

• Problem: As monasteries became more widespread, there was a need for structured leadership and practices to ensure their success and harmony.

• Solution: Benedict’s Rule created a balanced approach to monastic life, with clear instructions for daily prayer, work, study, and community life, focusing on humility, discipline, and stability.

12. Justinian, Corpus Iuris Civilis (CP 16-17)

• Problem: The Roman legal system was in disarray, and there was a need for a unified body of law.

• Solution: Emperor Justinian commissioned the Corpus Iuris Civilis, a comprehensive compilation of Roman law, which later became the foundation for most legal systems in the Western world.

13. Justinian, Novella VI (CP 18)

• Problem: Social and economic order in the Byzantine Empire was threatened by various legal and administrative issues.

• Solution: Novella VI addressed issues such as the regulation of marriage and family, reflecting Justinian’s attempts to regulate social life and ensure stability within the empire.

14. Han Yu (SCT 568-73)

• Problem: During the Tang Dynasty, Confucianism was being challenged by Buddhism and Daoism, and there was a movement to reassert the importance of Confucian values.

• Solution: Han Yu advocated for the return to Confucian teachings, arguing against the growing influence of Buddhism, especially in the court and intellectual circles. His writings called for the preservation and strengthening of Confucian moral and social principles.

15. Nestorian Stele and Chinese Christian Sutras (WCH 243-51)

• Problem: Christianity was encountering difficulties in establishing a lasting presence in China, as it had to adapt to Chinese culture and religious traditions.

• Solution: The Nestorian Stele, a monument that documented the spread of Christianity in China, and the Chinese Christian Sutras helped bridge this gap, with Chinese Christians blending Christian teachings into local cultural forms and practices.

16. The Quran

• Problem: The rise of Islam in the 7th century presented a challenge to existing religious structures in the Middle East and beyond.

• Solution: The Qur’an provides the divine revelation to Prophet Muhammad, offering guidance on faith, worship, law, and morality. Its central teachings emphasize monotheism, the importance of social justice, and the need for submission to God's will.

17. The Babylonian Talmud (CP 22-34)

• Problem: After the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE, Jewish religious life and law needed to be redefined without the central temple.

• Solution: The Babylonian Talmud is a compilation of Jewish rabbinic teachings, debates, and discussions on the Torah and Jewish law, aiming to preserve and interpret Jewish tradition in the absence of the temple. It serves as a foundational text for Jewish religious practice and thought.

18. Hadith (NAWR-Islam, pp. 170-179) (CP 35-37)

• Problem: Early Muslims faced the need to define and preserve the teachings and actions of Prophet Muhammad.

• Solution: The Hadith are collections of sayings, actions, and approvals of the Prophet Muhammad, offering guidance on how Muslims should live according to Islamic principles. They provide context and clarity on the Quran’s teachings and how to apply them in everyday life.

19. Pope Gelasius, On Spiritual and Temporal Power (CP 50)

• Problem: During the early medieval period, the roles of religious and secular authorities were often unclear, leading to conflict between the papacy and secular rulers.

• Solution: Pope Gelasius I articulated the two-swords doctrine, arguing that there were two powers in the world—spiritual (Church) and temporal (State)—and they must remain separate. The Church should wield authority over spiritual matters, while secular rulers should govern political affairs. This helped define the relationship between the Church and state.

20. John of Damascus, On the Divine Images (WCH 291-94, ch. 6, 7, 11, 14)

• Problem: The Iconoclast controversy (8th century) debated whether religious icons and images should be venerated, leading to a division between the iconoclasts (who opposed icons) and the iconophiles (who supported icons).

• Solution: John of Damascus defended the veneration of icons in his treatise On the Divine Images. He argued that images could be used to represent the divine, as long as they were not worshipped as idols. This work supported the decision at the Second Council of Nicaea (787 CE), which affirmed the use of icons in Christian worship.

21. The Iconoclast Controversy (CP 51-53)

• Problem: The Byzantine Empire faced intense debates over the use of religious icons in the 8th and 9th centuries. Iconoclasts, led by Emperor Leo III, argued that icons were idolatrous, while others believed they were important for worship.

• Solution: The controversy was eventually resolved in favor of icon veneration at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787 CE, which condemned iconoclasm and reaffirmed the legitimacy of icons in Christian worship.

22. The Donation of Constantine (CP 56-57)

• Problem: The Church’s political power was contested, and there were doubts about the legitimacy of the Pope’s authority over secular rulers.

• Solution: The Donation of Constantine was a forged document claiming that Emperor Constantine I had granted the Pope authority over Rome and the Western Roman Empire. It was used to bolster papal authority and claim supremacy over secular rulers. While later proven to be a forgery, it played a significant role in medieval politics.

23. Ibn Rushd, The Decisive Treatise (CP 38) (NAWR-Islam, 277-285)

• Problem: Islamic scholars were grappling with the relationship between faith and reason, particularly the use of philosophy to understand religion.

• Solution: Ibn Rushd (Averroes) argued that reason and philosophy could coexist with Islamic faith. He believed that philosophy was a tool for understanding the deeper truths of the Quran and that there was no contradiction between rational inquiry and religious belief. This helped pave the way for the Latin Averroism movement in medieval Europe.

24. Al-Ghazali, Deliverance from Error (CP 39-49) (NAWR-Islam, 418-431)

• Problem: Al-Ghazali confronted skepticism and the limitations of human reason in relation to religious knowledge.

• Solution: Al-Ghazali’s work, Deliverance from Error, critiques the reliance on reason alone for understanding truth, arguing that faith and spiritual experience are essential for true knowledge of God. He emphasized that divine knowledge is beyond human comprehension and that revelation (Quran) provides the most reliable path to understanding.

25. Rumi (NAWL 381-386)

• Problem: Rumi, a 13th-century Persian poet, sought to address the spiritual conflict and fragmentation in the world.

• Solution: Rumi's poetry focuses on the theme of divine love, spiritual unity, and the pursuit of enlightenment. He emphasized that the soul's ultimate goal is to be united with God, and through love and devotion, one can transcend the boundaries of the self and experience divine truth.

26. Augustine, To Count Boniface; Reply to Faustus the Manichean (CP 58-62)

• Problem: Augustine wrote to Count Boniface about the problem of the decline of the Roman Empire and the role of Christians in it, while also responding to the Manichean heresy, which denied the goodness of the material world.

• Solution: In To Count Boniface, Augustine stresses that Christians should focus on the eternal city of God rather than the temporal city of man. In Reply to Faustus, he addresses the Manichean teachings by defending Christianity and explaining the relationship between the material world and God's goodness.

27. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica (CP 63-68)

• Problem: Christianity needed a systematic theology that reconciled faith with reason, particularly on topics like God’s existence, ethics, and the nature of human beings.

• Solution: Thomas Aquinas wrote the Summa Theologica as a comprehensive guide to Christian theology, providing philosophical arguments for the existence of God, the nature of morality, and the relationship between reason and faith. Aquinas used Aristotelian philosophy to explore Christian doctrine systematically.

28. The Quran on Warfare (CP 69)

• Problem: Early Islamic communities faced external threats, and there was a need to understand how to balance warfare with moral and religious conduct.

• Solution: The Quran provides ethical guidelines for warfare, emphasizing that war should be just, defensive, and not engage in aggression. It also outlines the treatment of prisoners, non-combatants, and the need for peace whenever possible.

29. Hadith on Jihad from the Collection of Muslim Ibn Hajjaj (CP 70-73)

• Problem: Jihad, or "struggle" in Islam, was a topic that required clarification, especially concerning its spiritual and physical dimensions.

• Solution: The Hadith of Ibn Hajjaj offers guidance on the concept of jihad, explaining that it includes both the internal struggle against sin (greater jihad) and, when necessary, external struggle (lesser jihad) to defend the faith. It emphasizes that jihad should be just and in defense of the community.

30. Wang Anshi (SCT 609-616)

• Problem: During the Song Dynasty, China faced political and economic challenges that required reform in governance and administration.

• Solution: Wang Anshi introduced a series of reforms, focusing on agricultural policies, taxation, and public welfare to improve the economy and strengthen the state. His ideas were aimed at addressing the socio-economic problems of the time and centralizing imperial power.

31. Zhu Xi (SCT 697-702, 706-707, 713-714, 720-722, 725-727, 729-731, 749-751)

• Problem: Confucianism needed a systematic philosophical and ethical structure that could address moral and societal issues during the Song Dynasty.

• Solution: Zhu Xi synthesized Confucian teachings into a comprehensive worldview known as Neo-Confucianism, emphasizing the importance of moral self-cultivation, the pursuit of knowledge, and the proper relationship between humans and the cosmos. His works deeply influenced Chinese thought and culture.

32. Nestorian Stele and Chinese Christian Sutras (WCH 243-251)

• Problem: Christianity needed to find a way to engage with and adapt to Chinese cultural and religious traditions.

• Solution: The Nestorian Stele, a stone monument discovered in China, commemorates the arrival of Nestorian Christians in the Tang Dynasty. It includes inscriptions that describe how Christianity, particularly Nestorianism, was introduced to China. The Chinese Christian Sutras also represent efforts to translate Christian teachings into Chinese, adapting Christian doctrine for a Chinese audience.

33. Tang Poetry (instructors’ choice from NAWL)

• Problem: The Tang Dynasty (618-907 CE) was a time of political consolidation and flourishing arts, but the poets faced the challenge of expressing profound personal and philosophical themes in a politically complex society.

• Solution: Tang poetry captures the social, political, and personal life of the time, often focusing on themes of nature, love, exile, and the search for meaning. Poets such as Li Bai and Du Fu were central figures who explored human emotions, the transience of life, and reflections on the natural world.

34. The Quran (Suras 1, 4, 12, 55, 78-107) (NAWR-Islam, pp. 86-110); Suras 19, 36 (NAWL, pp. 93-105; 106-114)

• Problem: The Muslim community needed divine guidance on how to live a righteous life, encompassing all aspects of society, law, and spirituality.

• Solution: The Quran presents the word of God as revealed to the Prophet Muhammad, providing guidance on religious duties, moral conduct, social justice, and personal behavior. It addresses the nature of God, the role of humans, laws regarding marriage and inheritance, and offers teachings on the afterlife. The Suras selected highlight key themes, including monotheism, the importance of justice, and the relationship between God and humanity.

35. The Pact of Umar (CP 74)

• Problem: Early Muslim rulers had to find a way to incorporate non-Muslim subjects into Islamic governance without causing conflict.

• Solution: The Pact of Umar is a set of agreements outlining the rights and duties of non-Muslims (particularly Christians and Jews) living under Muslim rule. It granted them protection and certain religious freedoms but also imposed specific restrictions, such as special taxes and prohibitions on public expressions of their faith.

36. Patriarch Timothy, "Apology before the Caliph Mahdi" (WCH 231-242)

• Problem: Christians living under Muslim rule needed to defend their faith and maintain their status within the Islamic Empire.

• Solution: Patriarch Timothy of the Church of the East presents an apologetic argument to the Caliph Mahdi, defending Christian beliefs and practices while trying to protect the rights of Christians within the Islamic Empire. The text provides insight into the interaction between Christian leaders and Muslim authorities during the early medieval period.

37. Patriarch Nicholas I Mysticus, "Letters to Muslim Rulers" (CP 75)

• Problem: Christians were seeking ways to engage in diplomacy and defend their beliefs amidst the spread of Islam.

• Solution: Patriarch Nicholas I wrote letters to various Muslim rulers, asserting the rights of Christians to worship freely and maintain their religious practices. These letters show the ongoing negotiation between Christian and Muslim rulers, often aimed at preserving peace and religious tolerance.

38. Pope Urban II, "Speech at the Council of Clermont" (CP 76-81)

• Problem: In 1095, the Christian world was divided, and the Byzantine Empire faced threats from Muslim forces. Pope Urban II needed to unite the Christian world and regain control of Jerusalem.

• Solution: Pope Urban II delivered a rousing speech at the Council of Clermont, calling for the First Crusade. He urged Christians to take up arms to reclaim Jerusalem from Muslim control, promising spiritual rewards for those who participated. This speech was a major catalyst for the Crusades.

*39. Guibert de Nogent, The Deeds of God through the Franks (WCH 328-334)

• Problem: The First Crusade had significant consequences for both Europe and the Middle East, and chroniclers needed to document and justify these events.

• Solution: Guibert de Nogent, a monk and historian, wrote The Deeds of God through the Franks to record the actions and motivations behind the First Crusade. His account provides both a religious and historical perspective on the Crusades, emphasizing the religious zeal and the moral justification for the military campaign.

40. Ibn al-Athir (WCH 334-335)

• Problem: As the Crusaders moved through the Middle East, the Muslim world needed to respond to the growing threat posed by European Christians.

• Solution: Ibn al-Athir, a Muslim historian, provides an account of the Crusades from the Islamic perspective, highlighting the conflict between the Christian Crusaders and Muslim forces. He offers insight into the challenges faced by the Muslim world in responding to the Crusaders’ advances and documents key battles and events.

41. Brief Account of the Arab Conquest of Egypt (CP 82-84)

• Problem: The early Islamic expansion required a historical understanding of how Muslim armies conquered regions, such as Egypt, that were once part of the Byzantine Empire.

• Solution: This brief account outlines the Arab conquest of Egypt, describing the military campaigns that led to the fall of the Byzantine-controlled region and its incorporation into the Umayyad Caliphate. The account provides a crucial understanding of the early Islamic conquests and the spread of Islam in North Africa.

42. Robert De Courcon, “Statutes for the University of Paris” (CP 85-86)

• Problem: The medieval university system was emerging in Europe, and there was a need to establish rules and guidelines for academic life.

• Solution: Robert De Courcon wrote the "Statutes for the University of Paris" to establish a clear framework for academic governance, defining the roles of students, teachers, and administrators. The statutes aimed to regulate behavior, define areas of study, and ensure the proper functioning of the University of Paris, one of Europe's most influential medieval universities.

43. Peter Abelard, Sic et Non (CP 87)

• Problem: In the 12th century, there was a need for systematic theological study that reconciled conflicting authorities and opinions.

• Solution: Peter Abelard’s Sic et Non (Yes and No) presents a series of questions on Christian doctrine, where Abelard identifies conflicting opinions from various sources. He encourages critical thinking and the use of reason to resolve theological disputes, promoting a more rational approach to theology.

44. Hildegard of Bingen, The Book of Divine Works (CP 88-90)

• Problem: During the medieval period, female mysticism was an important but often marginalized part of Christian spirituality.

• Solution: Hildegard of Bingen wrote The Book of Divine Works, which outlines her mystical visions and experiences. Her writings explore themes of divine creation, human responsibility, and the interconnectedness of all life. Hildegard’s works had a significant influence on medieval spirituality and theology, particularly in the realm of mystical theology.

45. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theologica (ICCW 203-204 Second Article, 206-207 Fifth Article)

• Problem: Aquinas aimed to reconcile faith and reason, particularly in relation to the nature of God and the role of human beings in the divine plan.

• Solution: In the Summa Theologica, Thomas Aquinas presents logical and systematic arguments to explain key aspects of Christian doctrine, including the existence of God and the nature of morality. These works solidified Aquinas’s place as one of the most influential theologians in medieval Christianity.