Voices of the Voiceless & Indigenous Struggle – Key Concepts

First Contact and Early Colonial Violence

• Voices from the era: Aguaybana and the 1st greeting of Columbus (depictions of initial encounters).
• Oppression and Resistance in the Caribbean: brutality of the encomienda system, economic motivations (Gold) intertwined with coercive labor.
• Oppression breeds resistance: rising discontent among Taino and others under Spanish rule.
• The Legend of Hatuey: Hatuey as a key Taino leader; statue in eastern Cuba.
• 1512: Hatuey tracked down, captured, and executed by burning.
• Bartolomé de las Casas and the Black Legend: debates over depictions of genocide against the Taino; critique of Spanish colonial practices.
• The Spanish as a Catholic empire: framing of conquest within a Catholic civilizing mission.
• The Roots of Rebellion: Cimarrones and Maroons; Criollos and Peninsulares as social divisions within colonial society.
• The evolution of colonialism in the Caribbean: changes in governance, labor systems, and economic structures.
• Cash crops and capital: rise of plantation economies; dependency on export crops (e.g., sugar).
• The trans-Atlantic slave trade: central to labor dynamics and economic models.
• Forms of resistance: various strategies taken by enslaved peoples and colonized communities; roles of Maroons (Cimarrones), and social groups like Criollos vs Peninsulares.
• Core takeaway: colonialism combined violence, coercive labor, economic extraction, and resistance that shaped regional histories.

The Legend of Hatuey and Early Resistance

• Hatuey: Taino chief who became a symbol of resistance to Spanish conquest.
• Cultural memory: Hatuey’s legacy in Cuba and broader anti-colonial narratives.
• Brutal suppression of rebellion as a pattern in early colonial contact.

The Black Legend and Catholic Imperialism

• Bartolomé de las Casas and debates over the Black Legend (portrayals of Spaniards as uniquely brutal).
• The argument that the Spanish were seen as a catholic empire enforcing conversion and domination.
• How these depictions influenced European and Atlantic perceptions of conquest.

Roots of Rebellion and Social Stratification

• Cimarrones and Maroons: enslaved communities that escaped and created autonomous societies.
• Criollos: people of European descent born in the Americas; Peninsulares: people born in Europe who migrated to the colonies.
• The evolution of colonialism in the Caribbean: shifts in power, landholding, and labor arrangements.
• Cash crops and capital: plantation economies driving wealth for colonial powers.
• The trans-Atlantic slave trade: scale, routes, and labor implications for Caribbean societies.
• The forms resistance can take: passive resistance, flight, sabotage, organized revolts.
• Summary: the social fabric in the Caribbean was shaped by racialized hierarchy, economic extraction, and ongoing resistance.

The Transatlantic Slave Trade and Slavery as Economic Institution

• Between 1650 and 1860, approximately 10 ext{ to } 15 ext{ million} enslaved people were transported from western Africa to the Americas.
• Most shipments went to the West Indies, Central America, and South America.
• Slavery as an economic institution: labor for cash-crop economies (notably sugar) that sustained colonial wealth.
• 19th century Cuba as a focal point of sugar plantation capitalism and slavery’s centrality to the economy.

The Age of Revolution: Global Contexts

• The Age of Revolution includes the American, French, and Haitian Revolutions as global events.
• Key revolutions:
  • American Revolution (1775–1783): Revolution against colonial governance; inspired global anti-colonial movements.
  • French Revolution: challenged the old order and promoted radical ideas about sovereignty and rights.
  • Haitian Revolution: the first successful anti-slavery, anti-colonial revolt in the Caribbean and the world.
• Other key terms and events:
  • Seven Years' War (1756–1763): global conflict that reshaped empires and colonial holdings.
  • Battle of Lexington (April 19, 1775): start of the American Revolutionary War.
  • Shays’ Rebellion: post-revolutionary uprising in the United States highlighting tensions about governance and rights.
  • Revolution: a form of conflict or war-like change with global implications; involves colonies vs metropole and shifting political orders.
  • Anti-Stamp Act Handbill (1756), Boston Massacre (March 5, 1770), Boston Tea Party: pivotal events in rising colonial resistance to British policies.

Indigenous Struggle in Colonial Latin America and the Caribbean

• Borikén: the original name for Puerto Rico, reflecting indigenous heritage.
• Cacique: a chief or leader among indigenous communities.
• Hatuey: prominent indigenous leader and symbol of resistance (referenced again here).
• Encomienda: a labor system that forced Indigenous peoples into coerced labor under Spanish rule.
• Bartolomé de las Casas: reformer who criticized the abuses of the encomienda system and highlighted Indigenous rights (and the Black Legend debates).
• The Americans were and always have been "Tierra Indigina" (Indigenous lands): persistent memory of Indigenous presence and dispossession.
• The Taino: the Indigenous group present in Puerto Rico before European contact; oral tradition; did not extensively write down their histories.
• Zemi: spiritual or religious object/art within Taino culture.
• Voices of the Voiceless: emphasis on Indigenous voices and perspectives in colonial histories.

Puerto Rico: Commonwealth Status and Disaster Capitalism

• Archipelago: Puerto Rico is part of the wider Caribbean archipelago.
• Puerto Rico’s political status since 1898: Spanish colony until the 1898 Spanish-American War; subsequently became a U.S. territory.
• The U.S. labels them a "freely associated state" or the "commonwealth" since the Spanish-American War, with limited voting rights in Congress.
• Governance: managed by a financial oversight board appointed by Washington.
• Citizenship and taxation: Puerto Ricans are U.S. citizens and pay federal taxes.
• Socioeconomic realities: approximately 43 ext{%} of Puerto Ricans on the island live below the poverty line.
• Economy: largely controlled by absentee companies; financial institutions linked to U.S. banks since 1898; commanding heights of the economy in foreign multinational corporations.
• Tourism: U.S.-based landowners have historically profited from the island’s tourism industry.
• Hurricane Maria fallout:
  • 4{,}645 lives lost; many deaths attributed to inadequate response post-storm.
  • 91 ext{ billion} dollars in damage; infrastructure already crumbling.
• Political and social consequences:
  • Federal underfunding and delayed aid fueling public anger and debates over status and governance.
  • Mass migration patterns increased as privatization of essential services continued, with deteriorating service quality.
  • The island experienced what has been described as a regime of disaster capitalism.
• Indigenous and youth voices: a note that many young people became the voices of needed expressions and resistance.

Key Terms and Concepts (Glossary)

• Latifundios: large landed estates characteristic of plantation economies.
• Crillollos (Criollos): people of European descent born in the colonies.
• Syncretism: blending of cultural, religious, and linguistic practices across cultures.
• Criollos: see Crillollos above; often used interchangeably with Criolls in some texts.
• Peninsulares: people born in Europe who moved to the colonies.
• Slave Trade: transatlantic system of transporting enslaved Africans to the Americas.
• Slavery as an economic institution: slavery structurally supported plantation-based economies.
• Age of Revolution: era of global political upheavals (late 18th century).
• Seven Years' War (1756–1763): global conflict shaping colonial borders and power.
• Battle of Lexington (April 19, 1775): opening battle of the American Revolution.
• Shays Rebellion: uprising in the United States highlighting tensions within the post-Revolutionary order.
• Revolution: organized challenge to established political orders with global implications.
• Anti-Stamp Act Handbill (1756): protest against British taxation in the American colonies.
• Boston Massacre (March 5, 1770): killing of colonists by British troops, fueling revolutionary sentiment.
• Boston Tea Party: protest against tea taxes; key event in escalating tensions.

Legacies of Colonialism and Revolutions

• The First Successful anti-colonial struggle: Haitian Revolution as a landmark event proving anti-colonial power can succeed.
• Constitutional and legal legacies: discussions around constitutionality, individual rights, and the limits of citizenship for colonized peoples.
• Social hierarchies: lower classes and Indigenous populations faced ongoing exclusion and coercion.
• Slavery codified in national fabric: legal and economic structures perpetuated racial slavery.
• Women’s rights: limited political voice and rights historically documented in these contexts.
• The French Revolution as a key reference point for radical change and universal rights; international ramifications across the Atlantic world.

Connections, Implications, and Reflections

• Interconnectedness: Caribbean colonial economies, slave systems, and Indigenous dispossession shaped regional histories and global economic patterns.
• Modern relevance: discussions of disaster capitalism, colonial legacies, and economic inequalities inform contemporary debates about governance, citizenship, and development.
• Ethical and philosophical implications: legitimacy of empires, the morality of conquest, and the ends of state power in shaping human rights and dignity.
• Real-world relevance: Puerto Rico’s status, disaster response, and economic structure illustrate ongoing debates about sovereignty, taxation, governance, and resilience in post-colonial contexts.

Notable Dates and Numbers (for quick reference)

• 1512: Hatuey captured and executed by burning.
• 1650–1860: approximately 10 ext{ to } 15 ext{ million} enslaved Africans transported to the Americas.
• 19th century: sugar plantations in Cuba as a central slave-labor economy.
• 1756–1763: Seven Years' War.
• 1775: Battle of Lexington; start of the American Revolution.
• 1770: Boston Massacre.
• 1783: American Revolution concluded (contextual reference for global influence).
• 1898: Spanish-American War; Puerto Rico moves from Spanish colony to U.S. association.
• 2017 (contextual reference): Hurricane Maria and its aftermath (date often cited in discussions of disaster response and capacity).

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