~~UNIT 1~~

-Name all the factors of life in RAREHOGG order.

Response To Stimuli, Adaptation/Evolution, Reproduction, Energy Processing, Homeostasis, Order, Genes/Genetics, Growth and Development.

Response To Stimuli-Life will always move to or away from a stimulus.

Adaptation-Life will constantly adapt or evolve to better fit their environment.

Reproduction- Life will consistently reproduce, whether asexually or sexually.

Energy Processing- Life always uses the Energy it takes through eating, photosynthesis, etc., and converts it into nutrients.

Homeostasis-Life will always have a balanced internal structure that works together.

Order-Life will always have an order of cells, organelles, organs, and systems to make a being.

Genes-Life always has DNA.

Growth and Development- Life will always have some system for growth.

~~UNIT 2~~

In the reaction depicted above, maltose is broken down into two glucose molecules. Which of the following best explains the process of this reaction?

-The answer is that the addition of water gets rid of the covalent bond between the maltose. This is because the water shown on the diagram is being added to the new maltose format. We also see in the diagram that the water splits the O molecule holding the maltose together into two HO molecules; thus, adding water splits the covalent bond.

Based on its elemental composition, which of the following molecules does the model most likely represent?

The answer is Glycine. This is because we know that Glycine is a protein, and proteins contain all the elements of the shown molecule (Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxygen, and Hydrogen)

-Practice Test-

What is a Cation? What is an anion?

Isotopes are unstable elements. An ion is when an element has an unequal number of electrons and protons. A cation is a positive ion that loses electrons, and an anion is a negative ion that gains electrons.

How does the polar nature of water lead to hydrogen bonding between water molecules?

Because water is polar, it creates covalent bonds between the hydrogen atoms in the water that share an electron unequally. This causes the hydrogen to have a slightly positive charge and the oxygen to have a slightly negative charge. Thus, they repel each other. Because they repel each other, many bonds can form in one water source.

Using the penny lab as an example, explain how surface tension relates to water's properties.

Water attracts each other in a process called cohesion! The rest was fine; I forgot to mention that part.

Why is water’s water’s high-specific heat necessary for life on Earth?

Water absorbs and releases heat slowly, moderating the heat around us and preventing temperature fluctuations.

~~UNIT 3~~

Why is water a neutral pH?

Water is a neutral pH because it has precisely even numbers of Hydrogen ions to Hydroxide ions.

What unique properties does hydrogen bonding give to water?

Hydrogen bonding allows water to bond quickly and with many substances because it’s formed from a polar covenant bond. This bonding gives water the properties of surface tension, universal solvents, cohesion and adhesion, high liquid density, and high specific heat.

What is the difference between a monomer and a polymer?

A monomer is a single molecule that combines with other monomers to form a larger, more complex molecule called a polymer.

In the forest, an increase in deer populations leads to overgrazing, and the food supply decreases. This is an example of:

This is an example of density-dependent factors. Because the statement refers to a limiting factor of deer population, we know it must refer to some density factor. Because the food supply increase is because of overgrazing, that means it is because there are too many deer, and the density is too high. Thus, the factor is dependent on the density. Therefore, this is an example of density-dependent factors.

Using information for this element, determine the following: # of valence electrons and # of bonds needed to fill the 3rd shell.

The element shows us that there are 14 electrons in the element. Because the first electron shell holds 2 electrons, and the 2nd and 3rd electron shells hold 8 electrons, we know that valence electrons are the electrons in the 3rd shell that don’t fill up all 8 spots. We can do 14-10 to get that there are 4 electrons in the 3rd shell and thus four valence electrons. The 3rd shell can hold 8 electrons, so to fill the 3rd shell, we need 4 electrons.

6. Explain how enzymes are essential for breaking down proteins and building molecules in the body.

   Enzymes break down the proteins by breaking down the substrate into products. Enzymes create molecules by releasing energy when the bond is broken into a molecule.

-Practice Test-

3. Below is the general structure of amino acids. Label each atom as either carbon (C), nitrogen (N), hydrogen (H), or oxygen (O).

   Amino acids contain carbon in the center, with two oxygen atoms on the right side and one nitrogen atom on the left. Around all atoms, there are hydrogen atoms.

4. Proteins have five functions: Cell Structure, Cell defense, Hair/Skin/Muscles/Cell-to-cell communication, and Enzymes. Be prepared to explain each one thoroughly. These enzyme are called catalysts and they speed up chemical reactions. These reactions build up cell structures by taking the product and combining it within the activ site of the enzyme, and through dehydration synthesis, forms the two products into a molecule Carbohydrates are an energy source specifically for cell structure. Lipids store energy by being converted into trigylerides and then being stored in fat cells.

   22. Which of the following choices can be used to describe the reaction below?

       The correct answer would be dehydration synthesis. This is because the reaction shows two Amino Acids having a reaction to form a protein as water gets taken away, thus combining the two monomers.

       -Study Guide-

       4. Which of the following explains why water can dissolve ionic compounds like sodium chloride (NaCl)?

          Because water has such strong poles on either side, it attracts the ionic bond to each side so strongly that it splits it, dissolving the bond. The water doesn’t dissolve ionic compounds through covenant bonds because if it made covalent bonds with the ions, it wouldn’t split them, instead they would stay whole in the water.

          7. An enzyme is placed in a solution with a very low pH. Which of the following is most likely to happen?

             The enzyme will lose shape due to the excess hydrogen ions in the solution, disrupting the enzyme shape. This is because enzymes are made of amino acids, making them essentially proteins. So, since there the enzyme will have too many hydrogen ions, it will disrupt the hydrogen bonds that hold the protein together (since proteins are Amino Acids+water). The enzyme will be pulled to too many different hydrogen atoms, and thus make the enzyme lose it’s shape and bonds.

       1. What role does amylose play in carbohydrate digestion?

          Amylase breaks down carbohydrates into simple sugars through hydrolysis.

          3. Why are different enzymes needed for carbohydrates and proteins?

             Enzymes are substrate specific, so each one will only match up to one substrate.

          4. How does the body use carbohydrates and protein products for digestion?

             Carbohydrate products (Simple sugars) are used for energy, while protein products (amino acids) are used to repair and build cell tissue.

          Case Study #2:

          Explain how ocean acidification (increased carbonic acid) lowers the pH of seawater and how this might affect the structure and function of the enzyme carbonate.

          1. When the Ocean gets more acidic, it gains more hydrogen ions, which means that the carbonate function will likely decrease in function because it’s optimal pH requires less positive charges to the protein, and therefore less hydrogen ions.

             How might rising ocean temperatures directly affect the enzyme carbonate and the snails' ability to process carbohydrates from algae?

          2. The rising temperatures will cause the carbonate enzyme to decrease in productive function, this will make the snails ability to process carbohydrates weaken.

          How might the acidic environment affect the snails' proteins and overall health? Describe the potential consequences for protein structure and function under such environmental stress.

          3. Because more hydrogen ions are entering the water, they disrupt the end of amino acid chains, breaking the ionic bonds between the positive and negative ions (because water is polar), which causes the protein to lose it’s shape in a process called denaturation. This causes there to be less proteins in the snail, so there will be less repair of tissue and the snail will be weaker.

             ~~UNIT 4~~

             -Digestion Lab-

             2. What element is missing in the cellulose model needed to make collagen-like proteins? The element missing from the model is Nitrogen. This is because proteins need Oxygen, Nitrogen, Hydrogen, and Carbon.

                1. What organisms turn Nitrogen into usable Nitrates for plants? Free Living Bacteria, Symbiotic Bacteria, and Denitrifying Bacteria turn Nitrogen into Nitrates by breaking down the organic material and releasing nitrates.

                   7. Why do Plants Obtain Nitrogen?

                      Nitrogen is an essential element for the proteins that make plants function, so Plants collect the Nitrogen (since it is not a naturally made element), which gets converted into Amino Acids, which build the plant’s proteins.

                      1. Explain how glucose moves from the small intestine to the body cells.

                      Glucose moves from the small intestine through the body cells through facilitated diffusion. Facilitated diffusion is when the substance (in this case, Glucose) goes from a high concentrated solution to a low concentration. In this case, the Glucose goes through facilitated diffusion from the small intestine to the bloodstream, and then goes through facilitated diffusion again into the body cell, where it gets converted into energy by going to the mitochondria.

   -Practice Pear Test (uh oh)-

   6. What happens to sugars that are made during photosynthesis? Sugars made through photosynthesis are mainly used for cellular respiration because the sugars give energy to the cells by the glucose combined with oxygen to produce usable cellular energy.

      9. Label the enzyme. Look carefully at the diagram and remember that the enzyme breaks the substrate into products; the enzyme is what the product goes into, while the active site is the original meeting site between the enzyme and substrate.

      10. Which of the following is NOT a monomer? Proteins are not monomers; they are polynomes made from many Amino Acid monomers together.

          13. A red blood cell is placed into a sugar water solution. What is most likely to occur? Water from the red blood cell will diffuse into the solution. The cell has a lesser concentration of proteins in it than the solution, so the cell walls shrink (because the cell is in a hypertonic solution, water is going to go from the low-concentration cell to the high-concentration solution) from Osmosis. Water in the cell goes from low to high concentrations (Osmosis), so the water from the red blood cell would diffuse into the solution.

          14. Remember that hypertonic means that the solution (particles) has more particles than the water and hypotonic means that the solution is vice versa. The water will stop moving after Equilibrium is reached because it has no more concentration to move in.

          ~~UNIT 5~~

      It is 41 bases (or nucleotides) long. In this example, the flanking sequences consist of 9 bases (although in reality flanking regions are typically much longer). The eight four-base repeat units (GATA) make up the remaining 32 bases. How long would you expect an allele from this same locus to be if it had 10 repeat units?

~~UNIT 6~~

Tusklessness

5) What does the bar on the left tell you?

The graph tells us that 6% of all Elephants that were poached less came out with the tusklessness gene. We know this because the title of the graph shows the % of Tuskless elephants among different groups. The leftmost bar discerns that it represents the Elephant group that was less poached (which had a 6% Tusklessness rate), in comparison to the Civil War survivor Elephants, which had a 50% Tusklessness rate.

3) What is a realistic solution to reducing conflict between Elephants and humans?

A realistic solution to reducing conflict between Elephants and humans is through Education. This is because by educating the public about Elephants, they will be better adapted to work with them, rather than against the Elephants.

What Happens to the Heart Rate while they are holding one’s breath?

The data on the graph shows that the heart rate decreases because the no Apnea heart rate was about 10 beats higher than the Apnea heart rate, and then went up 15 beats after Apnea was acheived for 30 seconds, going from the Apnea rate of 50bpm to 75bpm.

What Caused the subjects heart rate to change when their face was submerged in water?

The dive response caused the heart to conserve Oxygen and beat more efficiently. The heart rate dropped because it is conserving it’s energy to only pump blood into the vital areas . This conserves oxygen (because oxygen is stored in the blood).

-Practice Exam-

Multiple Choice

4) ATP and NADPH are the reactants to the Calvin cycle.

8) NADPH has high-energy electrons that are used to synthesize glucose in the Calvin Cycle.

11) The Calvin Cycle produces glucose and requires co2 to do so.

17) Calvin Cycle uses Co2 from light reactions to make glucose

18) When Co2 goes into blood, it combines with the water to make carbonic acid.

Open Response

1) Remember that photosynthesis reactants are water, co2, and light energy.

2) To conserve oxygen, the body uses bradycardia and vasoconstriction. This causes an increased reliance on anearobic respiration in the muscles because of a lack of oxygen. Thus, the body will deter to using glycolysis and lactic acids in order to sustain energy.

3) Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the bloodstream, which maintains oxygen levels despite a decrease in the substance.

4) The light reactions produce ATP and NADPH, the reactants to the calvin cycle (which synthesizes glucose). The glucose is then used in cellular respiration to create ATP.

7) Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli into the capillaries and then binds to hemoglobin in the blood, diffuses into cells from the blood, and enters the mitochondria for ETC use.

8) Glucose production would halt, causing a shortage of the substance for cellular respiration and ultimately a decreased ATP production.

10) Make sure to add that Glycoslis produces less ATP—> Less energy production in dive.