IB History of the Americas SL 7.2 Notes

The Korean War, the USA, and the Americas

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Conceptual Understanding

Key Questions:

1. To what extent was US involvement in the Korean War consistent with the US policy of containment?

2. How did the Korean War affect the US presidency of Harry Truman?

3. What was the impact of the Korean War on the Cold War?

Key Concepts:

• Continuity

• Consequence

Key Events and Overview

• Invasion (25 June 1950):

• 100,000 North Korean soldiers, equipped with Soviet tanks, artillery, and fighter planes, crossed the 38th parallel, invading South Korea.

• This marked a new phase of the Cold War, characterized by proxy wars between the superpowers.

• North Korea’s Objective:

• Led by Kim Il-Sung, North Korea aimed to reunify Korea under a communist government.

• The planned war was intended to last two months.

• United Nations Response:

• The UN declared the invasion illegal.

• The USA was authorized to command a UN force to restore the borders.

• The Korean War became the first test of the UN’s concept of collective security, with 15 nations committing military forces.

The War and Its Effects

• Chinese Intervention and Threat of Nuclear War:

• China intervened during the conflict.

• The USA contemplated using nuclear weapons.

• Human Impact:

• Millions of Korean civilians became casualties and refugees.

• Outcome:

• After three years, the war ended with no territorial changes.

• The lessons from the Korean War shaped US foreign policy and influenced other nations in the Americas during the Cold War.

From Civil War to UN Police Action

• Historical Context:

• Korea, a long peninsula, borders China to the north and Japan to the southeast.

• Japan had occupied Korea since 1910.

• Post-WWII Division:

• After Japan’s surrender in 1945, Korea was divided at the 38th parallel.

• The Soviet Union occupied the north, and the USA controlled the south.

• The populations were roughly 9 million in the north and 21 million in the south.

• US Withdrawal and the Role of the UN:

• By 1947, the USA was eager to withdraw its forces and handed over administration of South Korea to the UN.

• The Soviet Union suggested that both superpowers withdraw their forces.

The Korean War and the Americas (1945–1981)

Key Events

1. UNTCOK and Initial Elections:

• On 14 August 1947, the UN created the United Nations Temporary Commission on Korea (UNTCOK) to supervise the withdrawal of occupation forces and oversee elections.

• North Korea denied entry to UNTCOK, while South Korea held elections on 10 May 1948, leading to Syngman Rhee becoming president.

• The Soviets withdrew forces from North Korea, which pressured the USA to do the same in the South.

• The Soviets supplied North Korea with heavy artillery, tanks, and technical expertise, while the USA only equipped South Korea with basic weapons, making the South militarily weaker.

2. Kim Il-Sung’s Diplomatic Efforts:

• Kim Il-Sung appealed to both Mao Zedong and Stalin for help in reunifying Korea under communism.

• Stalin initially hesitated but was influenced by US Secretary of Defense Dean Acheson’s speech, which did not mention Korea as a priority for US defense. Stalin then advised Kim to proceed with the invasion.

3. North Korean Invasion (25 June 1950):

• North Korean forces crossed the border and overwhelmed South Korea, capturing the capital, Seoul. South Korean and US forces were forced to retreat.

4. US and UN Response:

• President Truman sought quick action and UN authorization.

• On 27 June 1950, the UN Security Council passed a resolution condemning the invasion as a breach of peace.

• The Soviets boycotted the Security Council at the time, allowing the resolution to pass without a veto.

• Truman appointed General Douglas MacArthur as commander of UN forces, with 15 nations pledging support.

Truman’s Strategy and Concerns

1. Containment and Avoiding Global Conflict:

• Truman was determined to keep the conflict localized to Korea to avoid a direct confrontation with the Soviet Union, especially after they tested an A-bomb in August 1949.

• Concerns among NATO allies existed that Korea might be a Soviet distraction, allowing further expansion into Europe.

2. Public and Political Pressure:

• Truman faced criticism for being soft on communism, especially after the fall of China to communism in 1949.

• He decided to take a hard line in Korea to counter accusations from Republicans and to prevent being blamed for any perceived appeasement of communism.

3. “Police Action” vs. War:

• Truman declared the Korean conflict a “police action” under the UN’s authority rather than seeking a declaration of war.

• This tactic successfully mobilized military efforts, secured UN support, and maintained public backing.

Military Developments

1. Stage 1: Invasion and Inchon (June to September 1950)

• By 29 June, North Korea captured Seoul, and South Korean forces retreated to Pusan in the south.

• US forces arrived from Japan but were ill-prepared, though US air power slowed the North Korean advance.

• By late August, North Korean forces had stalled at the Pusan Perimeter.

• On 15 September, General MacArthur launched a bold amphibious landing at Inchon, near Seoul, with 25,000 troops.

• The North Korean army was forced to retreat as UN forces broke out from Pusan and recaptured Seoul, crossing the 38th parallel.

These developments set the stage for further escalations in the Korean War and shaped US Cold War policy.

Notes: The Korean War (Stages and Participants)

Stage 2: Chinese Intervention (Late 1950 - Early 1951)

• MacArthur’s Advance: Pushed into North Korea and captured Pyongyang.

• Chinese Warnings: MacArthur ignored warnings about Chinese intervention, dismissing their threat.

• Chinese Entry: In late November, 300,000 Chinese soldiers attacked, surprising the US forces and resulting in one of the worst defeats in US military history.

• Retreat and Seoul: UN forces were pushed back across the border, and Seoul was recaptured by Chinese/North Korean forces.

Stage 3: Stalemate and Peace Talks (1951-1953)

• Limited War Policy: President Truman aimed for a limited war and peace negotiations, facing opposition from General MacArthur.

• MacArthur’s Dismissal: Truman fired MacArthur for insubordination after MacArthur publicly opposed US policy and threatened to use atomic weapons.

• Stalemate: Both sides entrenched near the 38th parallel, engaging in trench warfare. Talks began in Kaesong in July 1951, then moved to Panmunjom.

• POW Dispute: A major sticking point was the repatriation of prisoners of war, many of whom did not want to return to China/North Korea.

• Change in Leadership: In 1952, Dwight D. Eisenhower was elected US president; Stalin died in March 1953.

• Ceasefire: A ceasefire was signed on 27 July 1953, establishing a demilitarized zone along the 38th parallel. No formal peace treaty was signed, meaning the two Koreas remained technically at war.

Casualties:

• Overall Losses: Over 3 million people died, including:

• North Korea: 215,000 soldiers

• South Korea: 137,000 soldiers

• China: Controversial, with estimates ranging from 500,000 to over 1 million.

• USA: 36,000 deaths.

• UN forces: 3,600 deaths.

• Civilian losses: 2 to 2.5 million.

Canada and Colombia’s Roles

• Canada: Initially cautious but contributed a significant force (27,000 soldiers, 500 killed). The third-largest UN contributor after the USA and UK.

• Colombia: Sent 6,200 soldiers and participated notably in the Battle of Pork Chop Hill. It was the only Latin American country involved in the conflict.

Impact on US Politics

• Truman’s handling of the war, particularly firing MacArthur and the long duration of the conflict, led to his decision not to run for re-election in 1952. Eisenhower’s campaign slogan, “I will go to Korea,” helped him win the presidency and oversee the end of the war.

Notes: Political and Diplomatic Outcomes of the Korean War

1. Different Historical Perspectives:

• David Bercuson (Canada): The Korean War marked the first real victory of the West in the Cold War, successfully resisting communist expansion.

• John Gaddis (USA): The war set a precedent that nuclear-armed nations could engage in a bloody, protracted conflict without using nuclear weapons. This lesson was significant for future conflicts like Vietnam.

2. Canada’s Response:

• The Korean War led Canada to undertake massive peacetime rearmament.

• By the mid-1950s, 45% of Canada’s budget was allocated to defense, with 10,000 soldiers stationed in Europe as part of NATO.

• Canada maintained a significant military presence in Europe throughout the Cold War, reducing its contribution only in the 1970s.

3. Impact on Latin America:

• The Korean War contributed to Latin America’s sense of marginalization.

• The USA focused more on containing communism than on economic development and democratization in Latin America.

• US dominance in the region increased, and military assistance flowed to authoritarian, anti-communist regimes.

4. The USA’s Continuing Cold War Policies:

• The Korean War strained US-Soviet relations further and reinforced the policy of containment.

• Eisenhower supported the French in Vietnam and continued the US commitment to protect South Asia from communism.

• After Korea, the USA stationed troops along the 38th parallel in South Korea to prevent further surprises.

• Long-Term Impact: The war entrenched a political commitment to containment, limiting the policy options for every US president up to the 1990s. US public opinion expected presidents to take a tough stance against communism until the end of the Cold War.

5. Map of the Korean Conflict:

• The map illustrates the changing fronts during the war, including the final US offensive and the military demarcation line along the 38th parallel in July 1953.

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