Ikenga-Metuh, Emefie. 1987. Comparative studies of African Traditional Religions

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Introduction to Comparative Studies of African Traditional Religions

  • Author: Emefie Ikenga-Metuh

  • Publisher: IMICO Publishers, Onitsha, Nigeria (1987)

  • Reference: Chapter 8 focuses on "The Living Dead and Ancestral Cult" (Pages 145-159)

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African Worldview

  • Spiritual beings classified into two groups:

    • Non-Human Spirits: Supreme Being, Deities, and Spirit-forces.

    • Human Spirits: Disincarnated spirits including souls, ghosts, witches, and ancestors.

  • Examples of elevated human spirits:

    • Yoruba: Sango (fourth king of Oyo), Oduduwa (first king of Ife)

    • Bugandan spirits: Kibuka and Mukasa (war heroes), Ryangombe (historical figure among Ruanda)

Classification of Spirits

  • Living Dead: Term used for all spirits of the departed, including those who were not ancestors.

    • Mbiti notes limitations in using terms like "ancestors" since it excludes other spirits.

  • Differentiation of spirits:

    • Ancestors vs. non-ancestors, each with specific cults and terminologies.

    • Example: Igbo terms - Ndichie (ancestors) and Ogeli (those who are not ancestors).

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Definition and Importance of Ancestors in African Religions

  • Ancestry Requirements: Rites of passage, moral life, and funeral rites necessary to attain ancestor status.

  • Variability among societies:

    • For some, the offspring, moral life, and appropriate funeral rites are crucial.

    • Good death vs. bad death: Bad deaths are associated with sin or unnatural occurrences, excluding those individuals from becoming ancestors.

Cultural Variations

  • Matrilineal societies:

    • Example: Ashanti and Ndembu prioritize mothers' brothers as ancestors.

  • Public vs. private conduct affects ancestor status:

    • Public criminals cannot be honored as ancestors.

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Ancestral Role

  • Ancestors serve as guardians of traditions, customs, and kinship relations.

  • They interact with the living, offering protection and guidance, with importance placed on upholding social norms.

  • Hierarchy of Ancestors:

    • Following the Supreme Being and deities, ancestors hold crucial positions.

Variations in Ancestor Worship

  • Differences in rights and rituals:

    • Women may set up shrines for female ancestors.

  • Restless spirits pose challenges for descendants lacking proper rites.

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Ancestral Cult in Igbo Society

  • Authority of elders derives from ancestral representation.

  • Symbolic tools include the 'Ofo' for communication with ancestors and God.

  • Ritual Practices:

    • Daily offerings of food, two annual festivals dedicated to ancestors.

    • Ancestors are believed to visit during festivals in masquerade forms.

Ancestral Beliefs Among Other Cultures

  • Ashanti: Kingship validated by ancestral spirit connection.

  • Gikuyu: Three groups of ancestral spirits based on familial and clan bonds.

  • Lovedu: Ancestors play a protective role; misfortunes linked to neglect of their worship.

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Ancestral Beliefs in Southern Africa

  • Variability exists in ancestral cults among Bantu peoples.

  • Beliefs about interactions between the living and dead encompass various rituals and communal practices.

Common Ancestral Beliefs

  • Recuperative practices: Divination to appease ancestors in times of trouble.

  • Casual Approach to Rituals: Lack of formal worship, reflecting on familial interaction rather than hierarchal spirituality.

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Ancestral Practices in Central Africa

  • Multiple categories of spirits:

    • Elders, innocent children, and disgruntled spirits of the unresolved.

  • Contrast with Baganda practices:

    • Recognition of different categories of spirits beyond familial ties.

Absence of Ancestral Cults

  • Tiv from Nigeria: No clear notion of ancestral influences as the dead lose human characteristics.

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Ancestral Cult vs. Ancestral Worship

  • Discussion on the inadequacy of the term "ancestor worship" to describe African practices.

  • Suggested terms include:

    • Dulia: Similar to worship of saints in Catholic theology.

    • Communion with Ancestors: Reflects relationship dynamics between living and dead.

Social Structure and Moral Order

  • Ancestors linked to societal norms and duties rather than personal moral virtues.

  • The practice emphasizes living relationships over afterlife conditions.