Ikenga-Metuh, Emefie. 1987. Comparative studies of African Traditional Religions

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Introduction to Comparative Studies of African Traditional Religions

• Author: Emefie Ikenga-Metuh

• Publisher: IMICO Publishers, Onitsha, Nigeria (1987)

• Reference: Chapter 8 focuses on "The Living Dead and Ancestral Cult" (Pages 145-159)

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African Worldview

• Spiritual beings classified into two groups:

  • Non-Human Spirits: Supreme Being, Deities, and Spirit-forces.

  • Human Spirits: Disincarnated spirits including souls, ghosts, witches, and ancestors.

• Examples of elevated human spirits:

  • Yoruba: Sango (fourth king of Oyo), Oduduwa (first king of Ife)

  • Bugandan spirits: Kibuka and Mukasa (war heroes), Ryangombe (historical figure among Ruanda)

Classification of Spirits

• Living Dead: Term used for all spirits of the departed, including those who were not ancestors.

  • Mbiti notes limitations in using terms like "ancestors" since it excludes other spirits.

• Differentiation of spirits:

  • Ancestors vs. non-ancestors, each with specific cults and terminologies.

  • Example: Igbo terms - Ndichie (ancestors) and Ogeli (those who are not ancestors).

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Definition and Importance of Ancestors in African Religions

• Ancestry Requirements: Rites of passage, moral life, and funeral rites necessary to attain ancestor status.

• Variability among societies:

  • For some, the offspring, moral life, and appropriate funeral rites are crucial.

  • Good death vs. bad death: Bad deaths are associated with sin or unnatural occurrences, excluding those individuals from becoming ancestors.

Cultural Variations

• Matrilineal societies:

  • Example: Ashanti and Ndembu prioritize mothers' brothers as ancestors.

• Public vs. private conduct affects ancestor status:

  • Public criminals cannot be honored as ancestors.

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Ancestral Role

• Ancestors serve as guardians of traditions, customs, and kinship relations.

• They interact with the living, offering protection and guidance, with importance placed on upholding social norms.

• Hierarchy of Ancestors:

  • Following the Supreme Being and deities, ancestors hold crucial positions.

Variations in Ancestor Worship

• Differences in rights and rituals:

  • Women may set up shrines for female ancestors.

• Restless spirits pose challenges for descendants lacking proper rites.

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Ancestral Cult in Igbo Society

• Authority of elders derives from ancestral representation.

• Symbolic tools include the 'Ofo' for communication with ancestors and God.

• Ritual Practices:

  • Daily offerings of food, two annual festivals dedicated to ancestors.

  • Ancestors are believed to visit during festivals in masquerade forms.

Ancestral Beliefs Among Other Cultures

• Ashanti: Kingship validated by ancestral spirit connection.

• Gikuyu: Three groups of ancestral spirits based on familial and clan bonds.

• Lovedu: Ancestors play a protective role; misfortunes linked to neglect of their worship.

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Ancestral Beliefs in Southern Africa

• Variability exists in ancestral cults among Bantu peoples.

• Beliefs about interactions between the living and dead encompass various rituals and communal practices.

Common Ancestral Beliefs

• Recuperative practices: Divination to appease ancestors in times of trouble.

• Casual Approach to Rituals: Lack of formal worship, reflecting on familial interaction rather than hierarchal spirituality.

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Ancestral Practices in Central Africa

• Multiple categories of spirits:

  • Elders, innocent children, and disgruntled spirits of the unresolved.

• Contrast with Baganda practices:

  • Recognition of different categories of spirits beyond familial ties.

Absence of Ancestral Cults

• Tiv from Nigeria: No clear notion of ancestral influences as the dead lose human characteristics.

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Ancestral Cult vs. Ancestral Worship

• Discussion on the inadequacy of the term "ancestor worship" to describe African practices.

• Suggested terms include:

  • Dulia: Similar to worship of saints in Catholic theology.

  • Communion with Ancestors: Reflects relationship dynamics between living and dead.

Social Structure and Moral Order

• Ancestors linked to societal norms and duties rather than personal moral virtues.

• The practice emphasizes living relationships over afterlife conditions.