Knowt
AP Euro Wars to Know
Hundred Years’ War (1337-1453)
England V France - from the final expulsion of the English from French territories except Calais.
Joan of Arc leads the French to victory, awakening French nationalism and helping lead to centralization after the war.
War of Roses - Civil War, did not end until Henry Tudor became the king.
French Civil Wars (1562-1594)
Wars of Religion (9 wars) - 3 families involved: Huguenot Bourbons, Catholic Guise faction and the Valois family (opposed Guise)
Started on St. Bartholomew’s Day Massacre, causing the War of the Three Henry’s - ended in Henry of Navarre being the first Bourbon king
Thirty Years’ Wars (1562-1594)
The Thirty Years War was the last of the religious wars and was mainly fought in the Holy Roman Empire. Its causes were a variety of religious and political rivalries between Protestants and Catholics that never smoothed over when the Peace of Augsburg in 1555 didn’t recognize Calvinism. It had four major phases:
Bohemian Phase (1618-1620): Bohemia had chosen to be Calvinist and HRE Ferdinand II wished for a return to Catholicism (they defenestrated the emperor’s representatives). Protestants are defeated in the resulting war.
Danish Phase (1625-29): Northern Germans and Denmark’s Christian IV (Protestant League) lose against Ferdinand’s Catholic League resulting the in the Edict of Restitution (negates Peace of Augsburg)
Swedish Phase (1630-35): Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden invades Northern Germany with new military tactics and pushes back the Catholic League under Wallenstein. GA is aided by France under Richelieu, but dies in battle.
Franco-Swedish Phase (until 1648) - France fought HRE/Spain for a balanced power. Austrian Habsburgs lose power.
The Peace of Westphalia (1648) marked the end of universal Christendom and the Holy Roman Empire declined as local leaders were given control over religion. The German states were given the right to choose the religion, including Calvinism. France became a world power, and religion was pushed out of politics as the pope wasn’t invited to the negotiation of the treaty. Overall the treaty decentralized the German states which is one reason why they weren’t unified again until 1871.
English Civil Wars (1642-1649)
English in the Seventeenth Century
James I - Rose took power in 1603 and ran into trouble with Parliament because he declared his divine right of kings whereas Queen Elizabeth I in the past had cooperated with Parliament. Also clashed with Puritan leaders.
Charles I - Became king in 1625 and continued to fight with Parliament, choosing the rule without them from 1629-1640. Scotland declared war on England when he tried to force the Scottish Presbyterian to use the Anglican Book of Common Prayer, which caused Charles I to need Parliament’s funding. Parliament agreed to funding in return for restrictions on Charle’s power. In 1641 he tried to get members of Parliament arrested when they were split over religious policy, this led to a civil war. Cavaliers (support for king) vs. Roundheads (support for Parliament). The Parliament ended up splitting into radicals who were king-hating Puritans against the Presbyterian majority who still wanted Charles as a monarch. The radicals ended up winning and created a new body called the Rump Parliament - Charles convicted of treason and beheaded.
Oliver Cromwell - Under Cromwell Britain became a commonwealth; Cromwell was largely supported by the military who suppressed rebellions and uprisings in Ireland and Scotland. He also got rid of the Levellers, radicals who wanted extreme democracy and equality, and the Rump Parliament which was difficult to work with; Made himself “Lord Protector” in 1653; Died in 1658, the parliament restored the Stuart monarchy after seeing the failure of army rule.
Charles II - Gave parliament great powers over taxation, but disputes arose when Parliament tried to pass laws against Puritans and Catholics to make the Anglican Church the state church. He suspended this with the Declaration of Indulgence (wanted to protect Catholic brother). In response Parliament passed the Test Act which bans Catholics from holding public offices in hopes of preventing James from becoming King. Charles disbands parliament.
James II - James II was openly Catholic and Parliament didn’t like his appointment of Catholics. However he was old so Parliament was just waiting for him to die and be succeeded by one of his Protestant daughters. However he had a son in 1688 which meant Catholic rule might continue.
The Glorious Revolution - Despite their differences, the Tories and Whigs united when James had a Catholic son and invited James’ Protestant daughter, Mary’s husband, William of Orange, to rule. The two expected an ensuing fight but when they arrived in England James had fled to France. The two monarchs recognized Parliament’s power and accepted the Bill of Rights which created a constitutional monarchy. The Toleration Act gave Puritans, but not Catholics, rights to public worship.
War of the League of Augsburg (1689-1697)
The League of Augsburg formed to ensure BOP as Louis XIV pursued expansion in his Dutch wars.
a. HRE, Britain, Spain, Sweden, Bavaria, Saxony, and the Dutch Rep.
b. Ended with status-quo
War of the Spanish Succession (1702-1713)
Grand Alliance forms to preserve BOP as the Spanish Habsburg king dies and leaves his territories to Louis XIV’s grandson; people believe that France will become a hegemony England, Dutch Rep., HRE, Brandenburg. Portugal, Savoy)
a. Ended with Treaty of Utrecht: Philip can take the throne but the French and Spanish throne had to be separate.
b. Spain lost Netherlands to Austria, Britain gained slave trade from Spain
c. Ended Louis XIV’s expansionism
War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748)
Pragmatic Sanction in 1713: resulted in agreement that Habsburg territories were indivisible and Habsburg lands would transfer to Habsburg rulers
a. Prussia violated the Sanction by taking Silesia (under Frederick II), believing Maria Theresa would be weak
b. England backed Austria V France backed Prussia
c. Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle
d. Europe returned to regular borders, but Prussia didn’t return Silesia
e. Signified Prussia’s status as a rival German power
Seven Years’ War (1756-1763)
Extension of War of the Austrian Succession; Austria fought Prussia over supremacy in HRE while Britain and France fought over dominance in the New World
a. Treaty of Paris ended the fighting; Prussia kept Silesia and remained powerful and Britain got French territories in NA
b. Asserted as dominant colonial power
c. Diplomatic revolution when Austria went with France and Prussia went with its former enemy Britain
d. States would side with whoever despite differences to achieve victory and maintain a favorable BOP.
French Revolution (1789-1799)
Causes of the French Revolution
A. Problems of the Old Order
a. First Estate: Catholic clergy, 0.5% of pop, yet owned 10% of land, exempt from taille (tax).
b. Second Estate: Nobility, 1.5% of pop, yet owned 25%-30% of the land, exempt from taille.
c. Third Estate: Bourgeoisie and peasants - peasants make up 75%-80% of the pop.
B. Short-Term Causes
a. Enlightenment spread ideas that made people more prone to question authority and advocated the end of the Old Order
b. Severe financial crisis due to foreign wars and the lavish spending of the nobility- the palace of Versailles was a huge cost
c. Wheat famine led to respond to these issues despite advice from his advisers Maupeou and Calonne to make reforms
C. The French Revolution
D. The First Liberal Phase
a. In 1789 Louis XVI called the Estates-General in search of funds, but this gave the third estate the means to air their grievances as each estate was given one vote - a combined First and Second estate vote could override the Third Estate.
b. The Third estate drafted the cahiers de doleances which was a series of petitions that called for reformations.
c. The First estate refused to vote by head, causing the Third Estate to declare itself the National Assembly.
d. Louis did not respond well to hese, although some members of the Second Estate supported the Third estate, which was significant if the Estates-General were to vote by head since the number of Third Estate representatives was equal to the amount of First and Second estate representatives combined.
e. The First estate refused to vote by head, causing the Third Estate to declare itself the National Assembly.
f. Louis locked the Third Estate out of the meeting area, so they moved to a palace tennis court and all swore to the Tennis Court Oath, saying they wouldn’t leave there until they had drafted a constitution for France
g. The Parisians were incensed by the king’s actions in Versailles so they attacked and seized the Bastille on July 14, 1789.
h. Caused peasants to revolt against their lords and burn records of their feudal obligations in a period known as the Great Fear
i. The National Assembly, later called the Constituent Assembly, drew up the Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen which was based on the ideals of the Enlightenment and the American constitution
j. It granted women basic civil rights, but excluded them from politics. Olympe de Gouges in response wrote a Declaration of the Rights of Woman and the Female Citizen demanding equal rights for women, but she was ignored by the National Assembly.
Women’s March on the Versailles
a. Thousands of Parisian women marched 12 miles to Versailles to demand bread for their starving children. Louis XVI complied, thinking this would end the protest, but it only inspired the Paris National Guard under Lafayette to also march to Versailles. The crowd then demanded that the royal family return to Paris which he complied to. He was also forced to accept the National Assembly’s decrees and basically became their prisoner in Paris.
1790 Constitution of the Clergy
a. The Catholic Church ultimately became an enemy of the revolution. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy in July 1790 said that bishops and Priests were to be elected and paid by the state. They also had to swear allegiance to the Constitution, although many didn’t because the Pope forbade it. This basically limited the bishops and priests’ privilege and prevented people from inheriting jobs or buying their way into jobs.
b. The bourgeoisie gained more political power during this phase.
c. The Jacobins were a political group consisting of wealthy bourgeoisie members and spread radical ideas about wanting a republic.
d. Austria and Prussia didn’t want the monarchy to be overthrown which led to the Legislative Assembly to declare war on Austria in April 1792.
e. The fear of foreign invasion led to Parisian mobs taking the palace and the assembly, passing power over to the radical Frenchmen (sans-culottes) who comprised the Paris Commune
E. The Jacobin Republic and Reign of Terror
F. Closing Stages (Thermidorian Reaction)
a. The Jacobin Republic was led by Maximliien Robespierre
b. Didn’t want any opposition to their revolution so arrested and guillotined any suspected enemies.
c. The NC found Louis guilty of treason and he was guillotined
d. The threat of foreign invasion caused the Committee of Public Safety to institute conscription to create an army capable of pushing invaders out of France.
e. The Reign of Terror ordered the execution of any suspected enemies including Marie Antionette and Olympe de Gouges.
f. Believed they were creating a Republic of Virtue in which they committed atrocities in order to create a society where atrocities wouldn’t be committed
g. The National Convention took on a policy of de-Christianization to undermine the power of the Catholic Church and the old order - closed churches, remade a calendar not well received by people.
Closing Stages (Thermidorian Reaction)
a. France defeated its foreign enemies, yet Robespierre continued to institute the Reign of Terror, which ended in his own guillotining.
b. Robespierre’s execution started the Thermidorian reaction
c. August 1795 a new constitution was created - created a Directory with five directions who were supported by the military.
d. Middle-class was benefited economically and politically
e. Sans-culottes didn’t benefit
f. However the Directory was not enough to satisfy the radical republicans (left) who wanted a Republic and the monarchists (right) - in 1799 ripe for Napoleon’s coup d’etat
G. Inspired the slave revolt in St. Dominique:
a. Before slavery was abolished in 1794, a slave revolt in 1791 based off of revolutionary ideas occurred on the French colony of Saint-Domingue, prominent for its sugar plantations. The slaves killed the plantation owners, their family, and burned their buildings. The white planters struck back with equal force, but the revolt was taken over by Toussaint L’ Ouverture who seized control of Hispaniola by 1801. In 1802, however, Napoleon reinstated slavery and captured L’Ouverture. However, the French soldiers were weakened with disease, allowing the slaves to fight back and announce their freedom in western Hispaniola, now called Haiti.
Napoleonic Wars (1792-1815)
War of the Second Coalition (1798-1801), Napoleon won
Slave rebellion in Haiti
(1805-1813) Expansion through force, the Grand Empire
War of the Third Coalition (1805-1807), Napoleon won
The Peninsular War (1808-8014) Spanish revolted against Napoleon, Napoleon put brother Joseph on the throne.
Russian Campaign (1812) Napoleon invaded Russia, was forced to withdraw having taken huge losses.
War of the Fourth Coalition (1813-1814) Napoleon finally defeated at the Battle of Leipzig (Battle of the Nations).
Order restored by the Congress of Vienna.
July Revolution (1830)
Bourbon Charles X issued the July Ordinances (censorship, dissolved legislature and reduced electorate).
Provisional government of radical liberals seized Paris and asked Louis-Philippe to take the throne.
Charles fled to Britain, Louis-Philippe became the “bourgeoisie” king
Sparked a wave of revolutions in Italy, Germany, Belgium and Poland.
Revolutions of 1848
The Revolutions of 1848
Louis Philippe abdicated the French throne in 1848 because he was unable to deal with rising liberalist movements
Provisional government took over, and eventually a constitution that called for an elected presidency was drafted. Napoleon Bonaparte elected as first president
In the German states there was pressure for liberal reforms and a new constitution by the Frankfurt Assembly, but people didn’t like how government ideas were being attempted for the entirety of the german states
Dispute over what should make up the new German state: either all German states (Grossdeutsch) or all German states save for the province of Austria (Kleindeutsch). Austrians opted out, and the Prussian king Frederick William IV, was invited to rule a unified Germany, but he refused, and the movement ended.
Austria: Metternich’s control on all of the different nationalities was slipping (he was dismissed and fled Austria) as the Hungarians were able to win a measure of self-governance. The Czechs and Croats also began pushing for self-rule but they were unsuccessful.
Italy: In northern Italy people attempted to thwart Austrian control to set up constitutional governments but only Piedmont was successful. True achievement was largely unsuccessful due to poor coordination, but the wins were also significant to further nationalism and liberalism as legitimate movements.
The Crimean War (1853-1856)
By the mid-19th century it was clear that the Ottoman Empire was disintegrating.
Question over who would benefit from their decline - Russia and Austria were interested because they were closest to them.
The Ottoman Empire declared war on Russia in 1853, and they were backed by the French and British because they didn;t want to see Russian domination
The Crimean War was a military disaster: over 250,000 deaths, most of them from disease.
Saw the recognition of professional nurses such as Florence Nightingale
British and French forces attacked Russian fortress at Sevastopol, fell in 1855
Treaty of Paris in 1856 ended the Concert of Europe.
Austria and Russia became enemies, and Russia was greatly weakened which altered the balance of power.
German Unification Wars (1866-1871)
The Frankfurt Assembly in 1848 was a failure, so Prussia used economic tactics to establish German unity.
A customs union called the Zollverein promoted unity amongst the German states by eliminating tolls on trade routes between member states.
Middle class in Prussia challenged the influence of the Prussian military which led to the appointment of Otto von Bismarck as chancellor by King William I to contain liberal dissent.
Bismarck was a politique and made decisions based off of current situations, not ethics or morality
Launched an aggressive foreign policy to distract liberals from the military’s involvement in domestic affairs.
Under Bismarck Prussia was involved in three wars
Victory over Denmark (1864): precursor to Austro-Prussian War
Prussia’s victory under Bismarck gave him liberal support and dominance over German affairs which allowed his plans for a new German government controlled by Prussia to continue.
WWII (1914-1918)
Setting the Stage for War
a. Before WWII things were fairly peaceful due to Bismarck’s diplomacy
b. When the Ottoman empire was on the decline he architected the Triple Alliance in 1882 between Germany, Austria and Italy to preserve the European status Quo and keep Russian influence in check.
c. When Bismarck was dismissed in 1890 William II attempted to strengthen Germany by severing ties with Russia who joined an alliance with France.
d. Then he threatened Britain, who joined the Alliance with Russia and France (Triple Entente).
e. In 1908 Austria annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina because it didn’t want a larger Serbian kingdom to form.
f. Russia encourage Serbia to go to war, but Wiliam II threatened to go to war with Russia, which caused the Serbs to back down.
g. The Serbs were still unhappy though and the European powers took sides as Germany backed Austria and Russia backed Serbia
Causes of WWII acronym: MAIN
M - Militarism
a. French and German arms race and tensions
b. H.M.S Dreadnaught sets a new precedent for naval power
c. Germany surpasses GB in manufacturing production
A - Alliances
a. Bismarkian system meant to keep the peace
b. Central powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire
c. Triple Entente; Britain, France, Russia (later Italy)
d. The system works until it doesn’t
I - Imperialism
a. National rivalry goes Global
N - Nationalism
a. Self determination on the basis of ethnicity
b. The Balkan peninsula
c. A lot of ethnicities group in the same area that don’t get along
d. Becomes hotbed for “Pan-Slavism”
e. Heritage shared with the Russians
f. Archduke Ferdinand assassinated by Black Hand Serbian
g. Nationalists (want to free slavic/serbian people from Bosnia in Austria-Hungary)
h. Sets off the Web of Alliances
The Outbreak of War
a. Causes of war can be broken down into: Militarism, Alliances, Imperialism, and Nationalism (MAIN).
b. Archduke Francis Ferdinand was assassinated June 28, 1914 by Bosnian nationalist.
c. Austria wants to use this act to retaliate against Serbia, gets Germany’s full support.
d. The ultimatum is so extreme that Serbia has to accept it
e. Tsar Nicholas II mobilizes entire army against Germany and Austria (partial mobilization was impossible) which causes Germany to declare war on Russia
f. Germany faces a two-front war with the Triple Entente (GB, France, Russia).
g. Schlieffen Plan: Germany first strike quickly against the French by taking Paris, then turns to the east to defeat Russia while they are still mobilizing. Causes Germany to call war on France. Which GB to call war on Germany due to violation of Belgian neutrality
h. Reactions to the war were exciting: wives believed their families would be home before Christmas and the general population saw this as a chance for a cultural reset and to get out of the monotony of bourgeois life.
The Great War
a. Development of machine gun forces each side to create trenches and begin a stalemate in the west.
b. In the East Germans are initially successful by crippling the Russians.
c. The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers. Allies encourage Arab leaders to revolt against Ottomans causing the Ottoman empire to collapse.
d. The United States joined the war in 1917 (abandon neutrality).
e. Governments centralize powers and put more control on the economy, along with manipulating the population through propaganda. Labor unions gain more support. Civil liberties curtailed
Revolution
a. As the war dragged on people became more and more miserable
b. In Russia, people had long been upset by Tsarist rule, but their ineffectiveness during the war to properly mobilize a large enemy caused even more discontent.
c. Tens of thousands marched through Pedrograd in protest of the war that had caused extreme poverty, hunger, and suffering.
d. Nicholas II abdicated March 15, 1917
e. A liberal government was set up in response but were challenged by the Bolsheviks and Mensheviks (soviet labor groups)
f. The Bolshevik government takes power when the provisional government continues to fail in the war.
g. Uphold promises to give land to peasants, give factories to workers, civil rights to women
h. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk - Russia leaves war
i. Civil War ensues in response to groups challenging soviet rule
j. Red army (communist, Lenin) vs. white army (anti-communist)
k. Policy of war communism and secret police force “Cheka”
6. The War Ends:
a. Germans launch another offensive in the west after Russia backs out, but America’s involvement causes William II to abdicate and on Nov. 11, 1918 a new German government to sign an armistice.
b. War was devastating: 9 million dead, 22 million wounded.
c. Political upheaval in Germany and Austria-Hungary.
d. U.S President Woodrow Wilson draws up the Fourteen Points
Russian Revolution (1917)
Russia under state of crisis under Nicholas II
a. SPD founded in 1898 with Lenin leading; split into Mensheviks and radical Bolsheviks.
b. February Revolution overthrew Nicholas and made provisional government under Kerensky.
c. October Revolution put Lenin back in Russia
d. Established communist dictatorship with Politburo
e. Civil War Between Red and White…Reds won and Lenin ruled as a totalitarian.
2. War
a. Blitzkrieg strategy to avoid trench warfare.
b. Conquer Poland within a month and divide it with Russia.
c. Germans troops resume attacks on Western Europe after “phony war” and conquer Northern Europe.
d. France surrenders ⅗ of its territory to Germany, the rest is put under the rule of Marshal Petain (Vichy government).
e. Hitler’s Final Solution: The extermination of all Jews
f. European Jews sent to ghettos, strike forces exterminate entire villages, eventually leading to the Holocaust (death camps)
g. Chamberlain resigns, Churchill next PM, refuses to appease Hitler
h. Germans launch air campaigns against British and bombed cities to try and depress morale, had the opposite effect
i. Sends troops to North Africa to help Italians
j. Tries to defeat the Soviet Union by attacking in June 1941 but are slowed down by winter
3. Pearl Harbor:
a. Japan had become a prominent world power through industrialization since the twentieth century.
b. In 1913 invaded Manchuria which led to full-scale war with China in 1937.
c. Interested in Siberia, so forms an alliance with Hitler.
d. Start to look at European holdings in the south which provokes the US which then prompts the Japanese to bomb Pearl Harbor (sneak attack)
e. US declares war on Japan three days later, then Hitler declares war on US
4. Turning Point:
a. US entry solidifies Grand Alliance (US, GB, France, Soviet Union) against Axis Power (Japan, Germany, Italy)
b. Despite suspicions of one another, the Alliance united to defeat Hitler
c. Total mobilization affected every facet of life: workers were given jobs in factories or farms, women worked in industries and increased their standings in the workforce (except Germany)
d. In Spring 1942 the Axis powers were at their most powerful, but that changed as GB and US forces defeated Ewin Rommel’s Afrika Korps, took down Japanese aircraft carriers (Battle of Midway), and the Soviet Union surrounded German troops at Stalingrad.
5. The Conclusion
a. June 6, 1944 Allied forces land at Normandy and begin moving eastward, liberating Paris, then moving to Berlin.
b. Germans try to regain control 6 (Battle of Kursk and Battle of the Bulge) but are unsuccessful
c. Allies continue to win during 1944-1945, prompting Hitler to commit suicide
d. German command surrenders a week later - May 7, 1945
e. Americans had been working way across Pacific to Japan’s mainland
f. Don’t want to invade Japan due to the high casualties that would ensue
g. Truman creates an atomic bomb and drops in on Hiroshima, when Japan doesn’t do anything drop another one on Nagasaki
h. Japan surrenders unconditionally
6. Aftermath
a. 60 million people died overall, the majority from the Soviet Union and China.
b. Economic disaster. Infrastructure damages
c. After the war tensions between the US and Soviet Union began to settle in again.
d. 1945 Yalta Conference sets stage for Cold War for military assistance against Japanese Roosevelt allows Russia to have territory in East Asia and influence in Eastern and Central Europe
e. Potsdam Conference: Truman brings up how people should have never free elections in Eastern Europe but Russia is opposed to Europe being divided again.
Cold War (1946-1991)
Defining the Marshall Plan
a. Named after the U.S Secretary of State under President Truman (1947-1949)
b. Believed that the US must play a part in rebuilding Europe to end hunger, homelessness, and unemployment caused by WWII
c. Also wanted to combat the spread of ideologies and stabilize democracies
The Marshall Plan (1948-1952)
a. Invested 13 billion dollars into 16 nations, largest beneficiaries are England and France.
b. Is very successful: 35% increase in industrial production, surpasses pre-war agricultural production.
The Economic Miracle
a. Caused by the Marshall Plan.
b. Starvation and poverty decreased, standard of living increased, income levels rose.
c. Europeans embrace consumerism - buy American products, listen to rock-n-roll, purchasing televisions, radios, washing machines, cars, etc.
Effects of the Marshall Plan
a. Allowed European democracies to financially recover
b. Created a time of economic stability in Western and Central Europe
c. Created consumer culture
d. Demonstrated the advantages of international economic cooperation which leads to organizations such as the Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC)
5. Contextualization
a. WWII had destroyed farmland, towns, and cities through firebombing and the movement of troops
b. Therefore the Marshall plan sought to combat these devastating effects.
c. Can also use the contextualization of the Soviet Union creating puppet states out of the Eastern states and how the Marshall plan sought to combat the growing threat of communism and protect democracies
6. Cold War Beginnings
a. After WWII tensions between the Soviet Union and the USA were undeniable - the Soviet Union wanted a buffer zone against the West while the US believed communism in the Eastern states was a threat to democracy.
b. US Truman Doctrine: US promises financial support for nations that are threatened by communist expansion.
c. The Marshall Plan: gave financial aid to European states, although the Soviet Union was excluded leading to more conflict between the two. George Kennan - containment policy.
d. Post-war Germany was split between western states and the Soviet Union, westerns wanted to unify Germany but the Soviets wanted to preserve communism and so implemented a blockade. Westerners override this through airlift.
e. First atomic bomb in Russia tested in 1949, leads to a nuclear arms race.
f. In 1949 NATO is established to preserve European security among western powers, causes Soviet Union to create Warsaw Pact w/ 7 eastern countries
