Untitled Flashcards Set

Learning Notes

• Learning

  • The process of acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors due to experience

• Association

  • Our minds naturally connect ents that occur in sequence

  • Operate subtly

    • Red pen = errors + mistakes

    • More likely to vote in support of taxes to aid education when = you are in a school

  • Feed our habitual behavior

    • Magic number = 66 days

      • Exercise = 75-80 days

    • Patients need to select a new behavior rather than give up an existing behavior

      • It's not possible to form a habit by not doing something 

    • Variation is incompatible with development of automaticity.

• Non-Associative Learning

  • Habituation – an organism’s decreasing response to a stimulus with repeated exposure to it.

  •  (Not sensory adaptation – rather a form of learning)

  • Even if stimulus changes we still have reduced sensitivity – ex. Friend yelling “Boo”

  • Living near a train track

  • Rat flinching

• Associative Learning

  • Learning that certain events occur together.  The events may be two stimuli (as in classical conditioning) or a response and its consequences (as in operant conditioning).

  • Necessary for survival – predicting immediate future

  • Examples include

    • Classical Conditioning

    • Operant Conditioning = Instrumental Learning

    • Observational Learning

• Principles of Classical Conditioning

  • Behaviorism- An approach to psychology that emphasizes the study of observable behavior and the role of the environment as a determinant of behavior.

    • “Its (science of psychology) theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior” (Watson)

  • Conditioning

    • association between environmental stimuli and the organism's responses

  • The process by which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response through association with a stimulus that already elicits a similar or related response.

• Important Terminology

  • Unconditioned stimulus (US) 

    • a stimulus that unconditionally (naturally) triggers a response (UR) ex. A puff of air to the eye

  • Unconditioned response (UR) 

    • an unlearned, naturally occurring response to an unconditioned stimulus (US) – ex. Blinking

      • Would every member of a species exhibit the behavior from birth?

  • Neutral Stimulus (NS) 

    • a stimulus that elicits no response

  • Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

    • Originally a neutral stimulus (NS) that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus (US) comes to trigger a conditioned response (CR)

  • Conditioned Response (CR) 

    • a learned response to a previously (NS) but now conditioned stimulus (CS)

  • Acquisition- in CC 

    • the initial stage, when one links a NS with a US to that the NS triggers the CR

• Pavlov’s Study

  •    

  • Bell needs to come before food

• Timing Matters for Acquisition

  • Delayed Conditioning: 

    • present CS, while CS is still there, present UCS. (overlap) - best when .5-1 second

  • Trace Conditioning: 

    • present CS, short break, then present UCS.  Not great -  Shorter breaks are better

  • Simultaneous Conditioning: 

    • CS and UCS are presented at the same time. Not very effective

  • Backward Conditioning: 

    • UCS is presented, then CS is presented. Not very effective

• Higher-Order Conditioning

  • A neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus (CS) by being paired with an existing conditioned stimulus (CS).

• Extinction

  • The weakening and eventual disappearance of a learned response.

  • In classical conditioning, it occurs when the conditioned stimulus is no longer paired with the unconditioned stimulus.

  • After extinction, sometime spontaneous recovery can happen

    • Spontaneous Recovery only happens after extinction occurs

    • Happens without reintroducing the US

    • Response is weaker ( less salivation for Pavlov’s dogs)

    • Example – Car Accident

• Stimulus Generalization

  • In classical conditioning, occurs when a new stimulus that resembles the conditioned stimulus, elicits the conditioned response.

  • If the CS (spider) elicits a CR (fear) other bugs or even toy spiders could begin to elicit the CR

• Stimulus DIscrimination

  • The tendency to respond differently to two or more similar stimuli.

  • In classical conditioning, it occurs when a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus (CS) fails to evoke a conditioned response (CR).

  • What is the value of such discrimination?

    • This is! But this is not

• Pavlov’s Legacy

  • Classical conditioning is one way that virtually all organisms learn to adapt to their environment. (Not just bells, not just salivation, and not just dogs)

  •  Pavlov showed us how a process such as learning can be studied objectively

  • Practical Applications

    • Drug rehab – Advice when leaving facility

    • Lupus – immune system conditioning

• Unlearning Fear

  • Counterconditioning.

    • The process of pairing a conditioned stimulus with a stimulus that elicits a response that is incompatible with an unwanted conditioned response.

    • Another child’s fear of rabbits was removed by pairing the stimulus which elicited fear with a stimulus that elicited happiness.

• Operant Conditioning

  • The process by which a response becomes more or less likely to occur depending on its consequences.

  • Edward Thorndike

    • Law of Effect - that any behavior that is followed by pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and any behavior followed by unpleasant consequences is likely to be stopped.

• Consequences of Behavior

  • A neutral consequence neither increases or decreases the probability that the response will recur.

  • Reinforcement strengthens the response or makes it more likely to recur.

  • Punishment weakens a response or makes it less likely to recur.

• Reinforcement

  • A stimulus strengthens or increases the probability of the response that it follows.

  • Primary reinforcers are inherently reinforcing and typically satisfy a physiological need. (food, water, sleep, sex, comfort)

  • Secondary reinforcers are stimuli that have acquired reinforcing properties through associations with other reinforcers. (money, tokens, grades, praise)

• Types of Reinforcement

  • Positive reinforcement 

    • when a pleasant consequence follows a response, making the response more likely to occur again.

  • Negative reinforcement 

    • when a response is followed by the removal of something unpleasant, making the response more likely to occur again.

• Punishment

  • The process by which a stimulus or even weakens or reduces the probability of the response that it follows.

  • Primary punisher

    • Something that is inherently punishing such as electric shock

  • Secondary punisher

    • A stimulus that has acquired punishing properties through an association with other punishers.

• Immediate vs. Delayed

  • Immediate 

    • given immediately after desired behavior

    • More effective

  • Delayed

    • given after a period of time following a desired behavior.

    • Less effective

    • Example: 

• Problems with Physical Punishments

  • Punished behavior is suppressed, not forgotten - this also negatively reinforces parents punishing behavior.

  • Punishment teaches discrimination among situations (ex. cursing)

  • Punishment can teach fear - (generalization) 33 countries outlaw corporal punishment

  • Observational learning = might increase aggressive behavior.

• The Skinner Box

• Principles of Operant Conditioning

  • Extinction

    • In operant conditioning, it occurs when a response is no longer followed by a reinforcer.

  • Stimulus generalization

    • Stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus are more likely to trigger a response.

  • Stimulus discrimination

    • The tendency of a response to occur in the presence of one stimulus but not another.

• Common Principles with Classical COnditioning

  • Stimulus generalization

  • Stimulus discrimination

  • Acquisition

  • Extinction

  • Spontaneous recovery

• Schedules of Reinforcement

  • Continuous

    • A particular response is always reinforced.

  • Intermittent (Partial)

    • A particular response is sometimes but not always reinforced.

  • Partial Reinforcement

  • Simple reinforcement schedules produce characteristic response patterns

  • Steeper lines mean higher response rates

  • Ratio schedules produce higher response rates than interval schedules

• Shaping

  • To teach complex behaviors, we may need to reinforce successive approximations of a desired response.

  • For example, training animals, getting children to make their beds.

• Chaining

  • Used to establish a specific sequence of behaviors by initially positively reinforcing each behavior in a desired sequence and then later rewarding only the completed sequence.

    • Ex.: Dog riding a bike, Pigeons playing ping pong

• Application if Operant Conditioning

  • Skinner introduced the concept of teaching machines that would shape learning in small steps and provide reinforcements for correct responses.

  • Reinforcement principles can enhance athletic performance.

  • Reinforcers affect productivity. Many companies now enable employees to share profits and participate in company ownership.

    • reward specific achievement

    • immediate if possible

      • ex. IBM (Watson)

  • In children reinforcing (good) behaviors increase their occurrence. Ignoring unwanted behaviors decreases their occurrence.

  • This is tricky for teachers and the students who tend to have behavioral problems.  What may seem to be a punishment (scolding the student) may actually be a reinforcement (paying attention to the student)

• Fixed Ratio

  • Example:

    • For every dandelion you pick you get a penny

  • Set # of times

  • Advantage: high response rate, more resilient to extinction

  • DIsadvantage: overkill, exhausted because you've done it so many time

• Variable Ratio

  • Example

    • # of times you ring the doorbell before someone opens it

    • Gambling

    • Sales (cold calling)

  • Advantage: high response rate, more resilient to extinction

  • Disadvantage: brief pause after response and exhaustion

• Fixed Interval

  • Example

    • Salary

  • Advantage: you know exactly when it's happening, very predictable

  • Disadvantage: least frequency of target behaviors, least response

  • Suspension bridge

• Variable Interval

  • Advantage: very resistant to extinction

  • Disadvantage: moderate response rate, not best for teaching new behaviors bc its unpredictable

• Self Improvement

  • State your goal in measurable terms and announce it

  • Monitor how often you engage in your desired behavior.

  • Reinforce the desired behavior.

  • Reduce the reward gradually

• Behavior

  • Behvator only care about the result

  • Though they could shape behavior through rewards or punishments

• Biological Constraints on Conditioning

  • Biological Influences:

    • Genetic predispositions

    • Unconditioned response

    • Adaptive redone

  • Social-cultural Influences:

    • Culturally learned preferences

    • Motivation affected by presence of others

  • Psychological influences:

    • Previous experiences

    • Predictability of associations

    • Generalization

    • Discrimination

• Biological Constraints on Conditioning

  • Limits on Classical Conditioning

    • John Garcia

      • If sickened hours later the rats avoided the novel flavor --- defied the US must immediately follow CS

      • Developed aversions to taste but not sounds or sights ( Taste Aversion) 

    • Biologically primed associations

    • Natural Selection - color red

    • A genetic predisposition to associate a CS with a US that follows predictably and immediately is adaptive

  • Limits on Operant Conditioning

    • Tendency for conditioning to be hindered by natural instincts. 

    • Raccoon Study (Keller and Marian Breland)

      • Taught raccoons to put coin in box

      • Food was reinforcer

      • Two coins brought out instincts --(Instinctive Drift)

• Cognition’s Influence on Conditioning Cognitive Processes(thoughts, perceptions, expectations)

  • Predictability of an event (Rescorla & Wagner) ( Tone---Shock = fear) Tone & Light --- (Light) didn’t evoke fear.

    • Expectancy – an awareness of how likely it is that the US will occur

  • Provide 3 other examples that “Cognition” matters

    • Alcohol treatment = nausea spiked drinks 

    • Fixed interval schedule - behavior increases as

  • Skinner’s Legacy

    • Skinner argued that behaviors were shaped by external influences and not inner thoughts and feelings. Critics argued that Skinner dehumanized people by neglecting their free will.

  • Cognition in Conditioning

    • Evidence of cognitive processes during learning comes from rats during maze exploration.

    • Navigate without an obvious reward. 

    • Rats seem to develop cognitive maps

      • Mental representation of the layout of the maze (environment).

    • Based on latent learning which becomes apparent when incentive is given (Tolman & Honzik, 1930)

  • Cognition in Conditioning: Motivation

    • Intrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior for its own sake. Ex.

    • Extrinsic Motivation: The desire to perform a behavior due to promised rewards or threats of punishments.

    • Overjustification Effect: When intrinsic motivation is rewarded extrinsically.  The behavior will decrease after the reward is taken away.

      • Ex. – Cranky old man

  • Cognition in Conditioning: Insight

    • One type of learning that is not determined by classical or operant conditioning occurs when we suddenly find the solution to a problem, as if the idea just popped into our head.

      • AHA moment

    • Wolfgang Köhler

      • Gestalt Psychology

  • Learning and Personal Control

    • Coping - alleviating stress using emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.

      • Problem-focused coping - attempting to alleviate stress directly – by changing the stressor or the way we interact with that stressor. -- used when we feel control

      • Emotion-focused coping - attempting to alleviate stress by avoiding or ignoring a stressor and attending to emotional needs related to one’s stress reaction. - used when we feel less control

  • Learning and Personal Control: Learned Helplessness

    • Learned Helplessness - the hopelessness and passive resignation an animal or human learns when unable to avoid repeated aversive events.

    • External locus of control - the perception that chance or outside forces beyond our personal control determine our fate.

    • Internal locus of control - the perception that you control your own fate.

    • Depleting and Strengthening Self-Control

      • Self-control - the ability to control impulses and delay short-term gratification for greater long-term rewards.

      • Walter Mischel’s Marshmallow Study – correlational study

      • Learned Optimism - the idea that a talent for joy, like any other, can be learned. It is contrasted with learned helplessness. 

      • Glass half full vs glass half empty

  • Observational learning

    • Observational Learning and people

    • Vicarious Learning

    • Modeling Requirements

    • Antisocial/Prosocial behaviors

  • Imitation Onset

    • Learning by observation comes about early in life. 

  • Bandura's Experiments

    • Bandura's Bobo doll study (1961) indicated that individuals (children) learn through imitating others who receive reward and punishments.

    • Coined phrase “social learning theory”

  • Bobo Doll Experiment

  • Vicarious Learning

    • Learning by seeing the consequences of another person’s behavior

    • The other person “models” the behavior, and the learner will watch to see if the model is reinforced or punished (vicarious reinforcement or punishment)

  • Mirror Neurons

    • Neuroscientist have discovered (mirror) neurons in the brain of animals and humans that activate during observational learning.

  • Mirrors and Imitation in the Brain

    • Cognitive imitation

  • Modeling Requiremnets

    • Bandura suggests four requirements for effective modeling to occur:

      • Attention

      • Retention

      • Ability to reproduce the behavior

      • Motivation

    • Learner must believe they can successfully carry out the behavior and control the outcome---Self-efficacy

      • a person’s belief in his or her ability to succeed in a particular situation. Bandura described these beliefs as determinants of how people think, behave, and feel

  • Antisocial/Prosocial Behavior

    • Antisocial behavior - negative, destructive unhelpful behavior

    • Prosocial behavior – positive, constructive, helpful behavior

    • Both types of behavior can be modeled effectively.

  • Positive Observational Learning

    • The good news is that prosocial (positive, helpful) models can have prosocial effects.

  • Applications of Observational Learning

    • Bad news from Bandura’s studies is that antisocial models (family, neighborhood or TV) may have antisocial effects.

  • Modeling Violence

    • Research has shown that viewing media violence does lead to increased expression of aggression.

  • Television and Observational Learning

    • Gentile et al., (2004) showed that elementary school going children who were exposed to violent television, videos and video games expressed increased aggression.