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Roman Origins, Infrastructure, Law, and Republic Structure

Origins and Geography

  • Traditional founding around 753\text{ BCE}; archaeological evidence places it in the mid-8^{th} century BCE.
  • One city-state grows into an empire across 3 continents (Europe, Asia, Africa).
  • Strategic location: central Italian Peninsula, near the Tyrrhenian Sea; waterways aid trade and troop movement.
  • Defense and settlement: built on the seven hills (plus a spur); later walls reinforce the city’s defense.
  • The Tiber River: navigable, crucial for transport and trade.

Infrastructure and Engineering

  • Civil engineering innovations underpin urban life: roads, bridges, aqueducts, public buildings.
  • Roads: total network of about 250{,}000 miles; around 50{,}000 miles paved.
  • Road design: three-tiered, with drainage and large paving stones; symbols like
    “All roads lead to Rome.”
  • Concrete and arches: durable construction; used in roads, bridges, aqueducts.
  • Aqueducts: 11 aqueducts feeding Rome; cover about 3{,}000 miles; around 300{,}000{,}000 gallons of water per day.
  • Water distribution: public fountains, settling tanks, continuous flow; some wealthy homes had indoor fountains.
  • Sewers and toilets: continuous flow; attempts to separate from drinking water.
  • Public baths: by late republic, about 170 baths in Rome; temperature control rooms; later emperors used baths for popularity and politics.

Water, Sanitation, and Social Life

  • Continuous-flow water systems, aqueducts, and baths support urban life and public health.
  • Lead poisoning concerns debunked by continuous flow and water treatment practices.

Law, Virtues, and Civic Ideals

  • Law: the most elaborate secular legal system in global history; laws written down and codified over time; judges and formal procedures; influence on later European and colonial legal systems.
  • Distinction from Greek law: Greek laws focused on city-states; Roman law was centralized and more systematically written.
  • Justification and virtue (Latin ideals):
    • Iustitia (justice, natural order) influenced by Stoicism.
    • Gravitas (seriousness, dignity).
    • Pietas (devotion to family and Rome).
    • Fides (tenacity/faithfulness).
    • Virtus (civic virtue; public good above self-interest).
  • Codification example: Justinian’s Code referenced as a later continuation of Roman legal traditions.

The Roman Republic: Origins, Structure, and Stages

  • Three stages: Monarchy (early), Republic (c. 509\text{ BCE} to around 27\text{ BCE}), Empire (emperors rule).
  • Republic meaning: res publica — a public thing; government by the citizens, not a single ruler.
  • Citizen classes by law:
    • Patricians (nobles, original ruling class).
    • Plebeians (commoners).
    • By the 3rd–2nd centuries BCE, plebeians achieved political equality with patricians in practice.
  • The Senate (key institution): usually middle-aged or older patricians, plus former high-ranking plebeians; senate membership is for life.
    • Powers: appoint military commands, advise commanders, oversee treaties, supervise international relations.
    • Public spending and the “power of the purse.”
    • Law-making: not the body that enacts laws, but its recommendations shape legislation in the Assemblies.
  • The Assemblies (democratic element): all adult male citizens participate; four districts/tribal divisions; votes are by district and then totaled.
    • Weighted, district-based voting; direct element of democracy filtered by senate influence.
    • Unlike Athenian direct democracy (one person, one vote), voting weight varies by district/wealth.
  • Offices and governance: magistrates and councils emphasize collegiality and consensus; short terms and rotation in office to prevent concentration of power.
    • Collegiality: two or more officeholders share power; aims to build consensus.
    • Terms are typically short (often one year); some positions last longer, but re-election to the same office is usually restricted.

The Republic in Practice and Steps Toward Empire

  • The Senate remains the center of political power; assemblies enact laws but follow Senate guidance.
  • Public offices and governance emphasize shared power and skepticism of concentrated authority.
  • The late Republic: rising tension and breakdown; figures like Julius Caesar expand military influence and alter Senate power; leading toward the Empire.

Additional Notes and Context

  • The early Roman practice of building walls around the city; expansion prompts new defenses and administration.
  • The Roman road system, arches, and aqueducts contribute to a vast, centralized empire and long-term governance.
  • Concepts of civic virtue and public service underpin both political structure and social expectation.