Myths and Folklore Unit Two Myths of Ancient Greece and Rome

1. The Beginnings

Creation

• In the beginning, there was Chaos, a dark mass where air, earth, and water were mixed.

• Gaea (Earth) and Uranus (Heaven) came into existence as the progenitors of the Titans.

• Notable Titans include:

  • Hyperion: god of the sun

  • Oceanus: god of the waters

  • Cronus (Saturn): father of the great Olympian gods

  • Iapetus: father of Prometheus and Epimetheus, who assisted Jupiter in creation; father of Atlas.

  • Female Titans include Rhea (wife of Cronus), Themis (mother of the Fates), and Mnemosyne (mother of the Muses).

• Cronus overthrew Uranus to become the ruler.

• Fearing a prophecy of being overthrown by his children, Cronus swallowed each child until Rhea deceived him with a stone for the sixth child, Jupiter (Zeus).

• Jupiter forces Cronus to release his siblings and defeats him in battle.

• Jupiter ruled the earth and heavens, with brothers Neptune (ruler of the seas) and Pluto (ruler of the dead).

• Sisters Ceres (goddess of grain) and Vesta (goddess of the hearth).

• The gods resided on Mount Olympus in Thessaly, a place free from rain or snow, keeping a gate of clouds tended by the Seasons. They feasted in Jupiter's palace, enjoying ambrosia and nectar while Apollo played music with the Muses until sunset, when they returned to their own dwellings.

Greek and Roman Gods and Goddesses

2. Mythology and Nature

Apollo and Phaëthon

• Phaëthon, the son of Apollo and a nymph, faced ridicule from his friends for claiming Apollo as his father.

• Seeking proof, he traveled to the East to meet Apollo at the throne of the sun.

• Upon seeing the dazzling splendor of Apollo, he hesitated to approach, but Apollo welcomed him and promised to grant any request he desired as proof of their relationship.

• Phaëthon foolishly asked to drive the sun's chariot. Apollo warned him against it, explaining the dangers and skill required to navigate the chariot safely.

• Stubbornly insistent, Phaëthon persuaded Apollo to allow him to drive. Apollo reluctantly prepared the chariot, warning him to hold tight to the reins and keep to the pathway of the sun.

• Upon taking the reins, Phaëthon struggled to control the fiery steeds, causing the chariot to veer off course and scorch the earth, igniting forests and turning fields into deserts.

• In desperation, men prayed to Jupiter for relief, prompting him to hurl a thunderbolt at Phaëthon to stop the chaos.

• Struck by the bolt, Phaëthon fell to the earth, dead, while Apollo regained control of the chariot but lamented the destruction caused by his son.

• The scorched lands serve as a reminder of the consequences of a mortal attempting to drive the sun's chariot.

Proserpine

Pluto, ruler of the lower regions, sought a bride to share his reign. He fell in love with Proserpine, the daughter of Ceres, while she was gathering flowers with her companions. Terrified, Proserpine called for her mother as Pluto carried her away to Hades. Ceres searched tirelessly for her daughter, neglecting her duties, which led to the earth suffering droughts and famine.

Eventually, Ceres discovered Proserpine's captivity in the underworld and implored Jupiter for help. Jupiter agreed to restore Proserpine on one condition: she had not eaten any food in Hades. However, during her captivity, Proserpine ate six pomegranate seeds offered by Pluto. This meant she could not fully return. A compromise was made allowing Proserpine to spend six months with Pluto and six months with Ceres. As a result, Ceres is joyful when Proserpine is with her, leading to spring and summer, but mourns during Proserpine's absence, causing fall and winter.

Prometheus and Epimetheus

Prometheus and his brother Epimetheus were tasked with creating man and ensuring his survival. Epimetheus bestowed various skills to animals, but when Prometheus fashioned man from clay, he had nothing left to give. To remedy this, Prometheus stole fire from heaven, elevating man toward godliness.

Jupiter was furious when he discovered Prometheus's theft but could not retract fire once it was given to man. Instead, he punished Prometheus by chaining him to Mount Caucasus, where a vulture would eat his liver daily, only for it to regenerate at night.

Fearing retaliation from Jupiter, Prometheus warned Epimetheus against accepting any gifts from the god. However, Epimetheus could not resist the gift of a beautiful bride named Pandora, who was given curiosity and a box she was forbidden to open. Driven by her curiosity, Pandora eventually opened the box, releasing all evils into the world but managing to retain hope inside it. Despite the troubles unleashed, mankind forever holds on to hope.

3. Stories of Greek Heroes

Perseus

The mythology surrounding Perseus is filled with characters and events that highlight his heroic journey. Danäe, the daughter of the king of Argos, was banished with her son Perseus to Seriphus, where they initially received kindness. However, as Perseus grew, the king of Seriphus fell in love with Danäe and tasked Perseus with conquering the Gorgon Medusa, a monster that could turn men to stone with her horrific gaze. To aid him, gods Minerva and Mercury provided him with a shield and knife respectively.

Perseus sought guidance from the Three Sisters, who shared an eye and a tooth and helped him acquire the helmet of Pluto, which rendered him invisible, along with winged shoes. Armed with these gifts, he approached Medusa and used Minerva's shield to view her reflection, allowing him to behead her without being turned to stone. From her blood sprang Pegasus, the winged horse, and Chrysaor, a warrior.

Continuing his adventures, Perseus crossed paths with Andromeda, who had been chained to a rock to appease a sea monster due to her mother's vanity. He saved her by defeating the monster and, as a reward, was given her hand in marriage. During their wedding, a former suitor attempted to claim Andromeda, but Perseus used Medusa’s head to turn the attackers into stone, ensuring his victory.

Finally, Perseus returned the gifts to their divine owners and presented Medusa's head to Minerva, who thereafter displayed it on her shield as a symbol of his great deeds.

Hercules

Hercules, son of Jupiter and Alcmene, was tasked with completing twelve great tasks, known as "the labors of Hercules." Juno, jealous of Hercules, sent serpents to kill him in his cradle, but he strangled them. Juno continued to hate him and placed a spell that drove him to madness, causing him to kill his wife and children. Cured by Minerva, Hercules became the servant of his cousin, King Eurystheus of Argos.

• Labors of Hercules:

  1. Nemean Lion: Killed the invulnerable lion and wore its skin.

  2. Hydra: Slayed the multi-headed serpent, recognizing that the middle head was immortal and burning the others before burying it under a rock.

  3. Arcadian Stag: Captured the golden-antlered stag after a year of pursuit.

  4. Boar of Erymanthus: Captured a destructive boar using a net.

  5. Augean Stables: Cleared the stables in a day by diverting two rivers.

  6. Man-Eating Birds: Slayed the monstrous birds with brass limbs.

  7. Cretan Bull: Captured the wild bull belonging to King Minos.

  8. Horses of Diomedes: Captured the man-eating horses and fed Diomedes to them to tame them.

  9. Girdle of Hippolyta: Acquired the girdle from the Amazon queen, after miscommunication led to their conflict.

  10. Oxen of Geryon: Secured the cattle of the three-bodied Geryon after overcoming obstacles on the journey.

  11. Golden Apples: With directions from Prometheus and Atlas, acquired the golden apples from the Hesperides after outsmarting Atlas.

  12. Cerberus: Captured the three-headed dog of Hades without weapons on Pluto's terms and returned him to Eurystheus.

After these labors, Hercules roamed freely but continued to have adventures, including the quest for the Golden Fleece. After his death, he became immortal, and the constellation of Hercules circles the sky. Additionally, his wife Deianira unwittingly caused his death with a poisoned shirt after the centaur Nessus tried to abduct her.

Key Characters and Places:

• Hercules: Hero and son of Jupiter.

• Juno: Goddess who opposed Hercules.

• Alcmene: Mother of Hercules.

• Eurystheus: King of Argos, cousin who ordered the labors.

• Minerva: Goddess who helped Hercules.

• Nemean Lion, Hydra, Arcadian Stag, Boar of Erymanthus, Augean Stables, man-eating birds, Cretan Bull, horses of Diomedes, girdle of Hippolyta, oxen of Geryon, golden apples of the Hesperides, Cerberus: All creatures and items related to the labors.

• Atlas: Titan who helped Hercules find the apples.

• Deianira: Wife of Hercules, whose actions led to his tragic end.

Theseus

• Background: Son of Aegeus, the king of Athens, and Aethra, daughter of the king of Troezen. Aegeus left a sword and sandals under a rock, telling Aethra to send Theseus to him when he could lift the rock.

• Journey to Athens: At sixteen, Theseus moved the rock and set out for Athens.

  • Slayed a savage at Epidaurus.

  • Defeated a robber at Corinth and slew several petty tyrants.

  • Notably defeated Procrustes, who murdered his victims by fitting them to an iron bed.

• Arrival in Athens: Aegeus's jealous wife Medea plotted his death but fled when she failed. Theseus was then recognized as the prince.

• Sacrifice to Crete: Athens was required to send fourteen young men and women annually to Crete as a tribute and living sacrifice to the Minotaur, a monster that lived in the Labyrinth.

  • Theseus volunteered to face the Minotaur against his father's wishes. Promised to return with white sails if victorious.

• Ariadne's help: In Crete, Ariadne fell in love with Theseus and gave him a sword and ball of thread to navigate the Labyrinth.

  • He defeated the Minotaur and escaped using the thread.

• Abandonment of Ariadne: Theseus left Ariadne on the island of Naxos while she slept, claiming a god’s order for her to marry Bacchus.

• Aegeus's Death: Theseus forgot to change the ship’s sails to white. Aegeus, seeing the black sails, presumed Theseus was dead and killed himself.

• Aftermath: After becoming king, Theseus had many adventures, including battling the Amazons and attempting to capture Proserpine from the underworld, which Hercules helped him escape.

Jason and the Argonauts

• Historical Context: The expedition of the Argonauts is a great legend, possibly having some historical basis. Key focus remains on the narrative and characters.

• Background: The story begins in Thessaly under Pelias's rule, who was reluctant to yield the throne to his nephew Jason. Pelias cleverly tricked Jason into seeking the Golden Fleece by arranging a banquet where tales of past heroes were told, inflaming Jason's ambition.

• The Quest for the Golden Fleece: Jason vowed to return with the Golden Fleece, a relic that once belonged to a winged ram, currently guarded by a dragon in Colchis. He commissioned the construction of a huge ship, the Argo, which could carry fifty warriors, including heroes like Castor, Pollux, Orpheus, Theseus, and Hercules.

• Challenges: The expedition faced various challenges, including the loss of a crew member, attacks from winged creatures, and the perilous Clashing Rocks that nearly destroyed the ship. Jason successfully navigated this danger using a dove as a signal.

• Conditions from King Aeëtes: Upon reaching Colchis, King Aeëtes imposed deadly tasks on Jason to obtain the fleece: yoke fire-breathing bulls, sow dragon's teeth, and defeat the armed warriors that would arise from them.

• Medea's Help: Medea, the king's daughter, fell in love with Jason and provided magical assistance, enabling him to tame the bulls and defeat the warrior men by causing them to fight each other.

• The Golden Fleece: With Medea's aid, Jason managed to steal the Golden Fleece and flee from Colchis.

• Escape and Betrayal: To delay her father's pursuit, Medea killed her brother Absyrtus and scattered his remains. During their journey home, the Argonauts passed the Sirens, whose songs were countered by Orpheus's music.

• Return to Thessaly: Back in Thessaly, Jason found Pelias unwilling to relinquish the crown. Medea tricked Pelias's daughters into killing their father under the guise of helping him regain youth.

• Jason’s Downfall: Ultimately, Jason's affection for Medea faded, leading him to abandon her for another wife. Medea, seeking revenge, poisoned Jason's new bride and killed their children before fleeing to Athens to marry King Aegeus. Jason, left in despair, eventually met his end when a beam from the rotting Argo fell on him.

Oedipus - A Tragic Hero

• Character Overview: Oedipus is one of the most tragic heroes in Greek mythology, characterized by courage, high-mindedness, and honesty. He was a just ruler beloved by his people but was cursed and ultimately destroyed by fate.

• Prophecy and Early Life: Jocasta, Queen of Thebes, and King Laius were told by an oracle that their son would kill his father and marry his mother. To prevent this, Laius ordered a herdsman to kill the baby. The herdsman, unable to kill the innocent child, tied him to a tree instead. The child was rescued by another shepherd and taken to Corinth, where he was adopted by King Polybus and Queen Merope, receiving the name Oedipus, meaning "swollen-footed."

• Fleeing Fate: As young Oedipus grew up, he learned from an oracle that he was destined to kill his father. Fearing he might harm Polybus, he left Corinth, inadvertently fulfilling part of the prophecy when he met and killed his real father, Laius, during a quarrel on the road.

• Defeating the Sphinx: Continuing to Thebes, Oedipus encountered the Sphinx, a monster who killed travelers who couldn't answer her riddle. Oedipus correctly answered the riddle, leading to the Sphinx's demise. Grateful, the Thebans made him king and he married Jocasta, unaware that she was his mother.

• Revelation and Tragedy: Years later, Thebes faced famine and pestilence. Oedipus promised to find the slayer of Laius, not realizing he himself was the culprit. As he uncovered the truth, Jocasta committed suicide, and Oedipus, in horror, blinds himself and left Thebes, accompanied by his loyal daughter Antigone.

• Aftermath: Oedipus found peace in Colonus, near Athens, where he died comforted by Theseus. However, back in Thebes, his sons Eteocles and Polynices fought over the throne, leading to their mutual destruction. Creon, their uncle, became king and denied burial rights to Polynices, leading to further tragedy involving Antigone's defiance against his edict and her eventual death.

• Literary Significance: The story of Oedipus is famously told in the play "Oedipus Rex," written by Sophocles, one of the greatest tragic writers of antiquity. Antigone later becomes the subject of another of Sophocles' plays, highlighting the themes of loyalty and justice.

4. Love Stories

Orpheus and Eurydice

• Background: Orpheus, son of Apollo and Calliope, was an extraordinary musician whose music enchanted all living things. He married the beautiful nymph Eurydice.

• Tragedy: Shortly after their wedding, Eurydice was bitten by a snake and died. Orpheus, devastated, expressed his grief through music, beseeching the gods for her return.

• Journey to Hades: Determined, Orpheus ventured into the underworld to retrieve Eurydice. He made it to the throne of Pluto (Hades) and Proserpine, singing so beautifully that even the spirits were moved.

• Plea to Pluto: Pluto agreed to let Eurydice return with Orpheus, under the condition that he should not look back at her until they reached the light of the upper world.

• The Return: As they ascended, Orpheus, overwhelmed with joy and impatience, turned to see Eurydice. In that moment, she vanished back into the darkness of Hades.

• Aftermath: Orpheus, consumed by grief, rejected the love of others and withdrew to a solitary existence. The Thracian maidens, spurned by him, ultimately killed him in their anger. He was reunited with Eurydice, but as a shade.

• Legacy: After his death, Orpheus's harp was placed among the stars by Jupiter, becoming the constellation Lyra, visible to this day.

Pygmalion and Galatea

Baucis and Philemon

• Background: Baucis and Philemon are a legendary couple celebrated in Roman mythology for their enduring love and hospitality. They lived in a humble cottage in Phrygia.

• The Arrival of the Gods: One day, the gods Jupiter (Zeus) and Mercury (Hermes) visited Earth in disguise, seeking shelter. They were turned away by the wealthy, but when they reached Baucis and Philemon's modest home, the couple welcomed them warmly.

• Generosity and Hospitality: Despite having little, Baucis and Philemon offered the gods food and drink, inviting them to share their meager meal. Jupiter and Mercury were impressed by their selflessness and love.

• The Revelation: The gods then revealed their true identities and expressed their gratitude. They warned Baucis and Philemon of the impending destruction of their village due to the inhabitants' unkindness.

• The Reward: In exchange for their kindness, the gods granted Baucis and Philemon a wish. The couple asked to die together, desiring to remain as one even in death.

• Transformation: Their wish was fulfilled; as they died, they were transformed into twin trees that stood side by side, symbolizing their eternal love.

• Legacy: Baucis and Philemon's story illustrates themes of hospitality, love, and the rewards of kindness, remaining a beloved narrative in mythology.

Cupid and Psyche

• Background: The princess Psyche was so beautiful that even Venus was jealous of her. Venus instructed her son Cupid to punish Psyche by making her fall in love with someone unworthy.

• Cupid's Love: Overwhelmed by Psyche's beauty, Cupid fell in love with her and whisked her away to a magnificent palace. He told her that everything there was hers and that they would be happy, but she must never look upon his face.

• Psyche's Curiosity: Psyche lived happily but eventually missed her family. After Cupid allowed her family to visit, her sisters sowed seeds of doubt about her husband. They advised her to take a lamp and a knife to uncover the truth about him.

• The Revelation: Curiosity led Psyche to peek at Cupid while he was asleep. She found him to be a radiant youth, but accidentally spilled hot oil on him, awakening him. Hurt and betrayed, Cupid vanished.

• Psyche's Quest: Distraught, Psyche searched the world for Cupid. She sought help from Ceres, who persuaded Venus to allow Psyche into her service. Venus, still angry, gave Psyche impossible tasks, including separating grains.

• Divine Assistance: Unable to separate the grains, Psyche was aided by Cupid, who commanded ants to help her complete the task.

• Final Trials and Union: Psyche faced more challenges from Venus but overcame them with Cupid’s secret help. Finally, Cupid went to Jupiter, seeking permission to be with Psyche. Jupiter consented, and Venus agreed to stop her harassment. Psyche was made immortal, allowing them to be united forever.

Aurora and Tithonus

• Background: Aurora is the goddess of the dawn who often fell in love with mortal youths. One of her favorites was Tithonus, son of Laomedon, king of Troy.

• Love Story: Aurora stole Tithonus away and persuaded Jupiter to grant him immortality. They were blissfully happy together at first.

• Aging Problem: However, Tithonus began to grow old despite being granted immortality; he developed gray hairs, and his step became slower.

• Immortality without Youth: While he remained immortal, he was not granted eternal youth. Eventually, Tithonus's hair turned white, and Aurora left his side.

• Seclusion: Tithonus continued to live in the heavenly palace luxuriously, but he was clearly wasting away and eventually lost the power of his legs. Aurora shut him up in his chamber, where his feeble voice could still be heard.

• Transformation: Aurora, sad and puzzled by her former lover's fate, decided to transform him into a creature that would reflect his voice. Thus, Tithonus became a grasshopper. On quiet evenings, his calls could still be heard, echoing the cries of their once-shared love.

5. Mortals Against Gods

Arachne

• Background: Arachne was a Lydian maiden whose skill in weaving was renowned across the world. She surpassed all rivals and became the acknowledged master weaver.

• Challenge to the Gods: An admirer suggested that Arachne must have been taught by the goddess Minerva. Arachne boldly replied that she could compete with Minerva.

• Minerva's Disguise: Minerva, disguised as an old woman, warned Arachne that it was unwise to compete with the gods. Arachne, confident and unafraid, insisted on a contest.

• The Contest: When Minerva revealed herself, the contest began. Minerva wove a beautiful scene showing the gods in their majesty, including a warning to Arachne to stop before it was too late.

• Arachne's Weaving: Arachne wove scenes of the gods but depicted them unfavorably, mockingly challenging them. Her work matched Minerva's in beauty, but it provoked the goddess's fury.

• Minerva's Retribution: Minerva destroyed Arachne's work in her rage. Arachne, feeling guilty and ashamed, hanged herself. However, Minerva transformed her into a spider instead of allowing her to die.

• Legacy: Arachne now spins webs without rest, and to this day, spiders are referred to as Arachnids, named after Arachne herself.

Marpessa and Idas

• Background: One of the most touching love stories in mythology is the tale of Marpessa and Idas. Marpessa was loved by the god Apollo, while her mortal lover, Idas, sought to be with her.

• The Abduction: With the aid of a winged chariot furnished by Neptune, Idas carried Marpessa away. However, Apollo caught up with them, intent on separating the pair.

• The Conflict: Idas defended Marpessa by standing in front of her, preparing to engage in combat with Apollo. The fight began, but Jupiter intervened and separated them.

• The Choice: Jupiter declared that Marpessa should decide who she would choose. Idas stood weary and fatigued on one side, while Apollo appeared radiant and divine on the other.

• Apollo's Offer: Apollo spoke first, offering Marpessa immortality. He promised her a life free from sorrow and death, filled with peace and happiness if she chose him.

• Idas's Proposal: Idas, though hesitant, expressed his love for Marpessa for more than her beauty. He promised his devotion and a shared life filled with both joys and sorrows. He could not offer her immortality but could offer a rich, full life as a human.

• Marpessa's Decision: Marpessa took Idas's hand, expressing her understanding that while life with a god could be pleasant, she feared the loss of sorrow. She valued the idea of growing old with Idas, embracing the full spectrum of human experiences.

• Conclusion: In anger, Apollo disappeared when she made her choice. Marpessa then walked away hand-in-hand with Idas, choosing a mortal life filled with shared joys and griefs.

Daphne

• Background: The god Apollo was taunting Cupid for his unmanly activities as the god of love. To prove his power, Cupid took two arrows: one tipped with gold to incite love and the other with lead to repel it.

• Daphne's Character: Daphne was a beautiful nymph and the daughter of the river god Peneus. She loved hunting and the woodlands, akin to the goddess Diana, and rejected all suitors, including her father's pleas for her to marry.

• Cupid's Trick: In a playful act, Cupid shot Apollo with the gold-tipped arrow, igniting his love for Daphne, while simultaneously shooting Daphne with the lead-tipped arrow, which repelled love. As a result, Apollo fell madly in love, but Daphne wanted nothing to do with him and fled.

• Daphne's Plea: In her flight, Daphne reached the river Peneus and prayed to be saved from Apollo's advances. Her prayers were answered as she was transformed into a laurel tree just as Apollo was about to catch her.

• Aftermath: Though thwarted, Apollo's love for Daphne did not die. He declared that the laurel tree would forever remain green and promised to wear its leaves as a crown in memory of his lost love. Thus, the laurel wreath became a symbol of victory and remembrance.