Untitled Flashcards Set

1. Hellenism

• Definition: Spread of Greek culture after Alexander the Great’s conquests.

• Influence: Impacted art, architecture, philosophy, and science, especially in Alexandria.

• Religious Syncretism: Blended Greek gods with local deities, creating new worship practices.

2. Seleucids

• Dynasty: Established by Seleucus I after Alexander’s empire divided.

• Culture: Promoted Hellenistic customs and Greek language in cities.

• Decline: Faced resistance from groups like the Maccabees and pressure from Parthians and Romans.

3. Maccabean Revolt

• Background: Jewish revolt (167–160 BCE) against the Seleucids due to religious oppression.

• Key Figures: Led by Judah Maccabee, a symbol of resistance.

• Outcome: Established Jewish autonomy and the Hasmonean dynasty.

4. Paul of Tarsus

• Early Life: Roman citizen, former Pharisee who persecuted Christians.

• Conversion: Converted to Christianity, becoming a leading apostle.

• Impact: Wrote epistles shaping Christian beliefs and conducted missionary journeys.

5. Romulus

• Mythical Founder: Co-founded Rome with Remus in 753 BCE.

• Legend: Raised by a she-wolf, Romulus killed Remus to become Rome’s first ruler.

• Legacy: Symbolizes Roman virtues like strength and leadership.

6. Hannibal

• Carthaginian General: Known for leading forces across the Alps during the Second Punic War.

• Tactics: Famous for ambushes, especially at the Battle of Cannae.

• Impact: Challenged Rome’s power before his eventual defeat at Zama.

7. Augustus (Octavian)

• First Emperor: Transformed Rome from republic to empire.

• Reforms: Centralized power, established Pax Romana, promoted arts.

• Legacy: His reign brought stability and prosperity to Rome.

8. Roman Citizenship

• Privileges: Included legal protection, voting, and office eligibility.

• Expansion: Gradually extended to provinces, especially by Caracalla.

• Unification Role: Fostered loyalty across the empire’s diverse populations.

9. Diocletian

• Emperor: Reigned 284–305 CE; introduced the Tetrarchy.

• Reforms: Stabilized the empire by dividing it into four regions.

• Religious Policy: Intensified Christian persecution to unify the empire.

10. Constantine

• Emperor: First Roman emperor to convert to Christianity.

• Edict of Milan: Legalized Christianity, fostering religious tolerance.

• Legacy: Founded Constantinople and organized the Council of Nicaea.

11. Orthodoxy

• Definition: Official adherence to accepted religious beliefs.

• Formation: Established through ecumenical councils addressing heresies.

• Importance: Created a unified Christian doctrine and church structure.

12. Heresy

• Definition: Beliefs that deviate from accepted religious doctrines.

• Historical Context: Significant in early Christianity for challenging orthodoxy.

• Response: Church leaders and councils condemned heresies to maintain unity.

13. Arianism

• Belief: Claimed Christ was created by God and not co-eternal.

• Controversy: Led to the Council of Nicaea and the Nicene Creed.

• Persistence: Influenced many groups and impacted Christian doctrine.

14. Goths

• Germanic Tribes: Notably Visigoths and Ostrogoths, who clashed with Rome.

• Migration and Invasion: Sacked Rome in 410 CE under Alaric.

• Legacy: Contributed to the transformation of post-Roman Europe.

15. Valens

• Roman Emperor: Co-ruled Eastern Roman Empire from 364 to 378 CE.

• Challenges: Faced the Gothic threat, culminating in defeat at Adrianople.

• Religious Views: Supported Arianism, causing division with Nicene Christians.

16. Punic Wars

• Conflicts: Three wars between Rome and Carthage (264–146 BCE).

• Significance: Established Rome as a Mediterranean power.

• Outcome: Carthage’s defeat allowed Rome’s expansion.

17. Byzantines

• Eastern Roman Empire: Continuation of Rome in the East after 476 CE.

• Culture: Preserved Greek and Roman traditions, developing Orthodox Christianity.

• Fall: Ended in 1453 when Constantinople fell to the Ottomans.

18. Justinian

• Emperor: Reigned 527–565 CE, known for legal and architectural achievements.

• Justinian Code: Codified Roman law, influencing European legal systems.

• Projects: Constructed Hagia Sophia and expanded the empire.

19. Mohammed

• Prophet of Islam: Last prophet in Islam, born in Mecca around 570 CE.

• Revelations: Received divine messages forming the Qur’an.

• Legacy: United the Arabian Peninsula, shaping religious, cultural, and political life.

20. Sasanian Persians

• Empire: Last pre-Islamic Persian dynasty (224–651 CE).

• Religion: Zoroastrianism as the state religion, promoting moral dualism.

• Fall: Conquered by Muslim Arabs, leading to the spread of Islam.

21. Alaric

• Visigoth King: Known for the 410 CE sack of Rome.

• Conflict with Rome: Sought land and recognition, highlighting Rome’s decline.

• Legacy: Influenced the narrative of Rome’s fall and rise of barbarian kingdoms.

22. Zoroastrianism

• Ancient Religion: One of the oldest monotheistic religions, founded by Zoroaster.

• Core Beliefs: Emphasis on good vs. evil, Ahura Mazda as the supreme god.

• Influence: Impacted major religions like Judaism, Christianity, and Islam.

23. Qur’an

• Islamic Scripture: Considered God’s literal word as revealed to Muhammad.

• Teachings: Moral guidance, laws, and divine nature.

• Role: Central to Islamic faith, guiding both personal and legal matters.

24. Hijra

• Migration: Muhammad’s journey from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE.

• Significance: Marks the start of the Islamic calendar and Muslim community’s establishment.

• Impact: Symbolized the shift from persecution to Islamic governance.

25. Mecca

• Holy City: Birthplace of Muhammad and site of the Kaaba.

• Hajj: Annual pilgrimage, one of Islam’s Five Pillars.

• Symbolism: Central to Islamic prayer and unity.

26. Medina

• Significance: Muhammad’s refuge city and site of his first mosque.

• Community Building: Emphasized justice, tolerance, and Islamic governance.

• Legacy: Remains a major center of Islamic pilgrimage and scholarship.

27. Ramadan

• Islamic Month: Time of fasting, prayer, and reflection.

• Practices: Abstention from dawn to sunset, promoting empathy and devotion.

• Culmination: Ends with Eid al-Fitr, a celebration of communal faith.

28. Dhimmi

• Protected Status: Non-Muslims (mainly Jews, Christians) under Islamic rule.

• Obligations: Paid a tax for protection, exempt from military service.

• Cultural Impact: Played significant roles in Islamic societies’ trade and scholarship.

29. Caliph

• Leader Role: Successor to Muhammad, combining spiritual and political authority.

• Historical Caliphates: Rashidun, Umayyad, Abbasid, and Ottoman.

• Significance: Shaped Islamic civilization’s administration and expansion.

30. Umayyads

• Dynasty: First Islamic dynasty, reigning from 661–750 CE.

• Achievements: Promoted Arabic language and Islamic architecture (Dome of the Rock).

• Downfall: Overthrown by Abbasids, leading to a new era in the Islamic world.

BROADER CONCEPTS

31. Development of Religions in Historical Context

• Evolution of religions like Judaism, Christianity, Zoroastrianism, and Islam, with significant impacts on culture and politics.

32. Religion and Political Power

• Use of religion by rulers to legitimize authority (e.g., Constantine with Christianity, Sasanian rulers with Zoroastrianism).

33. Conquests, Assimilation, and Resistance

• Empires like Rome and the Islamic Caliphates used strategies to assimilate populations, though resistance often persisted (e.g., Maccabean Revolt).

34. Transformation of Empires

• Empires like Rome evolved from republics to empires, eventually splitting and declining, adapting governance, and military tactics.

35. Governance of Populations

• Empires developed complex systems to manage diverse populations, including Roman citizenship, Islamic tolerance policies, and Persian satrapies.

Readings 

36. Maccabees

• Themes: Jewish rebellion, resistance to Hellenization, fight for religious freedom.

• Context: Maccabean Revolt (2nd century BCE), Jewish resistance against the Seleucid Empire.

• Key Points: Leadership of Maccabees, oppression by Antiochus IV, significance of Hanukkah.

37. 1 Thessalonians

• Themes: Early Christian beliefs, encouragement, moral guidance.

• Context: Written around 50 CE by Paul to the Thessalonian Christian community.

• Key Points: The second coming of Christ, Christian ethics, and strengthening faith.

38. The Early History of Rome by Livy

• Themes: Founding myths of Rome, Roman virtues, civic values.

• Context: Augustan Age (27 BCE – 14 CE).

• Key Points: Romulus and Remus, Roman virtues, Rome's growth from a small city to an empire.

39. Speech by Emperor Claudius (Tacitus)

• Themes: Roman citizenship and governance.

• Context: Claudius’s speech in 48 CE advocating for the Gauls in the Roman Senate.

• Key Points: Policies of inclusion, assimilation, and empire-building.

40. The Origin and Deeds of the Goths by Jordanes

• Themes: History of Goths, Roman interactions.

• Context: 6th-century Gothic historian Jordanes.

• Key Points: Gothic migrations, conflicts with Rome, decline of the Western Roman Empire.

41. Karnamik-i-Ardashir

• Themes: Sasanian imperial ideology, Zoroastrian influence.

• Context: Achievements of Ardashir I, founder of the Sasanian Empire.

• Key Points: Establishment of Sasanian Empire, religious influence, Persian statecraft.