APUSH 1-190

1.      1. General Court: The governing body of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, consisting of a bicameral legislature that included both the House of Deputies (elected representatives) and the Governor’s Council.

2. John Winthrop: The first governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and a leading figure in the founding of the colony. He played a significant role in establishing the theocratic society that characterized early New England.

3. Restoration Colonies: Colonies established during the period of the Restoration (1660) when Charles II returned to the throne. Key examples include Pennsylvania, Carolina, New Jersey, and New York.

4. Leisler’s Rebellion: A revolt led by Jacob Leisler against the Dominion of New England in 1689, where Leisler took control of New York, creating conflict between rival factions.

5. Quaker: A member of the Religious Society of Friends, known for their belief in pacifism, simplicity, and equality; they played a significant role in the establishment of Pennsylvania.

6. Navigation Acts: A series of laws passed by the British Parliament aimed at regulating colonial trade and enabling England to collect taxes from the colonies.

7. Half-Way Covenant: A form of partial church membership introduced by New England congregational churches in the 1660s, allowing the children of baptized but unconverted church members to be baptized.

8. Dominion of New England: A short-lived administrative union of English colonies in the New England region, created by King James II in 1686 to strengthen royal control.

9. Bacon’s Rebellion: A 1676 uprising in Virginia, led by Nathaniel Bacon, against Governor William Berkeley’s administration due to grievances over Indian policies and governance.

10. Enlightenment: An intellectual movement of the late 17th and 18th centuries emphasizing reason, science, and individualism rather than tradition; it influenced political thought and revolutions.

11. Great Awakening: A series of religious revivals in the American colonies during the 1730s and 1740s, promoting a more personal and emotional connection to faith.

12. Albany Congress: A meeting in 1754 of representatives from seven American colonies, aimed at better relations with Native Americans and cooperation in defense during the French and Indian War.

13. French and Indian War: A conflict between Britain and France (1754-1763) in North America that was part of the larger Seven Years' War, leading to British dominance in the region.

14. Writs of assistance: General search warrants used by British customs officials to curb smuggling in the colonies; they sparked colonial opposition and contributed to the Revolutionary sentiment.

15. Stamp Act: A 1765 act that imposed a direct tax on the colonies requiring the use of stamped paper for legal documents, newspapers, and other publications, leading to widespread protest.

16. Townshend Acts: A series of measures enacted by Parliament in 1767 that taxed goods imported to the American colonies, leading to heightened tensions between Britain and the colonies.

17. Tea Act: A 1773 act designed to help the financially troubled British East India Company by allowing it to sell tea directly to the colonies, leading to the Boston Tea Party.

18. “Common Sense”: A pamphlet written by Thomas Paine in 1776 advocating for American independence from Britain, influencing public opinion and revolutionary sentiment.

19. Second Continental Congress: A convention of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that met in 1775, managing the colonial war effort and adopting the Declaration of Independence.

20. Saratoga: A significant battle in 1777 during the American Revolutionary War, resulting in a major victory for the American forces and prompting French support for the revolution.

21. Treaty of Paris of 1783: The agreement that officially ended the American Revolutionary War, recognizing American independence and delineating its borders.

22. Articles of Confederation: The first governing document of the United States, ratified in 1781, which established a weak central government, leading to various weaknesses and calls for reform.

23. Newburgh Conspiracy: A 1783 planned military coup by Continental Army officers frustrated over pay and benefits, which ultimately failed due to George Washington's intervention.

24. Northwest Ordinance: A 1787 law that established a method for admitting new states to the Union from the Northwest Territory and set standards for their governance.

25. Shays’ Rebellion: An armed uprising in 1786-1787 by Massachusetts farmers protesting economic injustices and the lack of government support during post-war economic hardship.

26. Constitutional Convention: A 1787 meeting in Philadelphia where delegates drafted the United States Constitution, replacing the Articles of Confederation.

27. Federalist Papers: A series of essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay advocating for the ratification of the U.S. Constitution.

28. Anti-Federalists: Opponents of the ratification of the U.S. Constitution who feared a strong central government would threaten individual liberties.

29. Bill of Rights: The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1791, guaranteeing individual freedoms and rights.

30. Judiciary Act of 1789: A law that established the federal judiciary of the United States, creating the Supreme Court and lower federal courts.

31. Federal Naturalization Law of 1790: The first law that outlined the process for obtaining U.S. citizenship, granting it to free white persons who had lived in the U.S. for two years.

32. Hamilton's Reports: A series of reports authored by Alexander Hamilton, the first Secretary of the Treasury, laying out his financial plans for the national economy.

33. Jay's Treaty: A 1794 agreement between the U.S. and Great Britain aimed at resolving issues lingering from the American Revolutionary War, which was controversial in the U.S.

34. Pinckney Treaty: A 1795 agreement between the U.S. and Spain which established boundaries and granted the U.S. navigation rights on the Mississippi River.

35. Whiskey Rebellion (1794): A violent tax protest in the United States during the 1790s, primarily against the federal excise tax on whiskey; it tested the strength of the new government.

36. XYZ Affair: A diplomatic incident in 1797 involving a confrontation between the U.S. and France that led to an undeclared war and increased tensions.

37. Election of 1800: A contentious presidential election that resulted in Thomas Jefferson's victory over John Adams, resulting in a peaceful transfer of power between parties.

38. Alien and Sedition Acts: A series of laws passed in 1798 that restricted immigration and limited speech against the government, leading to significant controversy.

39. Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions: Political statements drafted in 1798 and 1799 that argued states could nullify federal laws deemed unconstitutional; they were a response to the Alien and Sedition Acts.

40. Marbury vs. Madison: An 1803 Supreme Court case that established the principle of judicial review, empowering the Court to strike down unconstitutional laws.

41. Louisiana Purchase: The 1803 acquisition of the Louisiana Territory from France, which doubled the size of the U.S. and provided access to vast resources.

42. Lewis and Clark Expedition: An exploratory mission (1804-1806) commissioned by President Jefferson to map the newly acquired western territory and establish relations with Native Americans.

43. Yazoo Claims: A series of land frauds in Georgia in the 1790s involving sales of land that were deemed fraudulent, leading to a major political scandal.

44. Chesapeake-Leopard Affair: An 1807 naval clash between the British warship Leopard and the American frigate Chesapeake, escalating tensions that led to the War of 1812.

45. Embargo of 1807: A law that prohibited American ships from trading with foreign nations, intended to protect U.S. interests but ultimately harming the U.S. economy.

46. Tecumseh: A prominent Native American leader who sought to unite various tribes against American encroachment and played a key role in the War of 1812.

47. Treaty of Ghent: The agreement that ended the War of 1812 between the U.S. and Britain, restoring relations and boundaries to their pre-war status.

48. “American System”: An economic plan proposed by Henry Clay that aimed to promote industry through protective tariffs, internal improvements, and a national bank.

49. Hartford Convention: A series of meetings of New England Federalists during the War of 1812 who discussed grievances and sought constitutional amendments, ultimately leading to disfavor for the party.

50. Rush-Bagot Treaty: An 1817 agreement between the U.S. and Britain to limit naval armaments on the Great Lakes, fostering peace and cooperation.

51. Barbary Wars: Early 19th-century conflicts between the U.S. and North African states over the issues of piracy and tribute; marked the U.S.'s first overseas military engagements.

52. Adams-Onis Treaty: An 1819 agreement between the U.S. and Spain in which Spain ceded Florida to the U.S. and defined the boundary between the two countries.

53. Monroe Doctrine: A policy proclaimed by President James Monroe in 1823 asserting that the Western Hemisphere was off-limits to new European colonization.

54. Panic of 1819: A financial crisis caused by economic downturn and bank failures, highlighting flaws in the banking system and leading to economic hardship.

55. Dartmouth College vs. Woodward: An 1819 Supreme Court case that ruled that the college's charter was a contract protected under the Constitution, limiting state interference.

56. McCulloch vs. Maryland: An 1819 Supreme Court case that affirmed the federal government’s implied powers over state laws, particularly regarding a national bank.

57. Gibbons vs. Ogden: An 1824 Supreme Court case that expanded federal power by ruling that states could not regulate interstate commerce.

58. Missouri Compromise: An 1820 agreement that allowed Missouri to enter the Union as a slave state while Maine entered as a free state, maintaining the balance of power.

59. The Cotton Culture: The agricultural system based on cotton production that became dominant in the South, leading to economic growth but also reliance on slave labor.

60. Samuel Slater: Known as the "Father of the American Industrial Revolution," he brought British textile technology to America and helped establish the first successful textile mill.

61. Lowell System: A labor and production model employed in the textile industry during the early 19th century that relied on young female workers in factory settings.

62. Second Great Awakening: A Protestant religious revival in the early 19th century that emphasized personal faith and led to the growth of various reform movements.

63. Corrupt bargain: The alleged deal made during the election of 1824 in which Henry Clay supported John Quincy Adams, leading to Adams’ presidency in exchange for a cabinet position for Clay.

64. Tariff of Abominations: A protective tariff passed in 1828 characterized by high rates that angered Southern states, leading to the Nullification Crisis.

65. Kitchen Cabinet: An informal group of advisors to President Andrew Jackson, who he consulted outside of his official cabinet, leading to criticism of his leadership style.

66. Maysville Road: A road proposed in Kentucky as part of a national infrastructure plan that was vetoed by President Jackson, highlighting his opposition to federal funding for internal improvements.

67. Worcester vs. Georgia: An 1832 Supreme Court case that ruled that states could not impose their laws on Native American lands, affirming tribal sovereignty.

68. The Webster-Hayne Debate (1830): A debate in the Senate between Daniel Webster and Robert Hayne over states’ rights and the nature of the Union, emphasizing the conflict between the North and South.

69. Force Bill: An 1833 act that authorized President Jackson to use military force to enforce federal laws in South Carolina during the Nullification Crisis.

70. Nicholas Biddle: The president of the Second Bank of the United States who fought against Andrew Jackson's campaign to dismantle the bank.

71. Specie Circular: An 1836 order requiring the payment for purchase of public lands to be in gold and silver, which contributed to the Panic of 1837.

72. Tocqueville's Democracy in America: A two-volume work published in 1835 and 1840 by Alexis de Tocqueville that analyzed American society, politics, and democracy.

73. The Liberator: An abolitionist newspaper founded by William Lloyd Garrison in 1831 that called for the immediate emancipation of all slaves.

74. Horace Mann: An educational reformer in the 19th century who advocated for public education and established principles of modern schooling.

75. McGuffey Readers: A series of grade school reading books published in the 19th century that promoted moral lessons and literacy among American children.

76. Manifest Destiny: The 19th-century doctrine that the expansion of the U.S. throughout the American continents was both justified and inevitable.

77. Wilmot Proviso: A proposed 1846 amendment aimed at prohibiting slavery in territories acquired from Mexico, leading to heated debates over slavery.

78. Compromise of 1850: A package of five laws aimed at resolving issues from the Mexican-American War, including the admission of California as a free state and stricter fugitive slave laws.

79. Free Soil Party: A political party formed in the late 1840s that opposed the extension of slavery into the western territories.

80. Commodore Matthew Perry: A U.S. naval officer who played a key role in opening Japan to the West with his 1853 expedition, leading to the Treaty of Kanagawa.

81. “The American Scholar”: A lecture given by Ralph Waldo Emerson in 1837 that called for American intellectual independence and highlighted the importance of self-reliance.

82. Seneca Falls Declaration: The 1848 document launched during the Seneca Falls Convention that outlined the rights women should have, marking the beginning of the women's suffrage movement.

83. Hudson River School: An American art movement in the mid-19th century known for its landscape paintings that celebrated nature and the American wilderness.

84. Minstrel Shows: Popular 19th-century theatrical shows featuring white performers in blackface, perpetuating racial stereotypes and often depicting African American culture in a derogatory manner.

85. Uncle Tom's Cabin: An 1852 novel by Harriet Beecher Stowe that depicted the harsh realities of slavery, energizing the abolitionist movement.

86. Kansas-Nebraska Act: An 1854 law that created the territories of Kansas and Nebraska, allowing settlers to decide on the legality of slavery, leading to conflict known as “Bleeding Kansas.”

87. Bleeding Kansas: A series of violent political confrontations in the mid-1850s between anti-slavery and pro-slavery factions in Kansas.

88. Dred-Scott Decision: An 1857 Supreme Court ruling that declared African Americans were not citizens and that Congress lacked the authority to regulate slavery in the territories.

89. Yeoman farmers: Independent farmers of the South who owned small plots of land and were mostly self-sufficient, and did not generally rely on slave labor.

90. Hinton R. Helper: An author of "The Impending Crisis of the South," published in 1857, which argued that slavery was detrimental to the Southern economy.

91. Know Nothing Party: A mid-19th century political group that emerged in response to immigration; it was nativist and sought to limit the influence of immigrants, particularly Catholics.

92. Ostend Manifesto: A document in 1854 that purportedly justified the U.S. annexation of Cuba from Spain, suggesting it was necessary for America’s security and expansion.

93. Freeport Doctrine: Proposed by Stephen A. Douglas in 1858, it asserted that territories could effectively exclude slavery by not passing the laws necessary to enforce it.

94. John Brown: An abolitionist who believed in armed insurrection as the only way to overthrow the institution of slavery; he led a raid on Harper's Ferry in 1859.

95. First Battle of Bull Run: The first major battle of the Civil War, fought in 1861, which resulted in a Confederate victory and shattered the illusion of a quick war.

96. Homestead Act: An 1862 law that granted 160 acres of public land to settlers for a small fee, encouraging westward expansion.

97. “King Cotton”: A phrase used to signify the importance of cotton production in the Southern economy prior to the Civil War and its role in the South's assertion of independence.

98. Battle of Antietam: An 1862 battle in Maryland that ended in a tactical draw but is considered a strategic victory for the Union, leading to the issuance of the Emancipation Proclamation.

99. Proclamation of Amnesty and Reconstruction: An executive order by President Lincoln in 1863 that offered pardons to Confederates who would take an oath of allegiance to the Union.

100. Wade-Davis Bill: A 1864 proposal for Reconstruction that required a majority of white male citizens in a state to take a loyalty oath, which was pocket-vetoed by Lincoln.

101. Gettysburg Address: A famous speech delivered by President Lincoln in 1863 at the dedication of the Soldiers' National Cemetery in Gettysburg, emphasizing equality and the purpose of the Civil War.

102. Trent Affair: A diplomatic incident during the Civil War in which the Union navy intercepted a British ship carrying Confederate diplomats, escalating tensions between the U.S. and Britain.

103. Military Reconstruction Act: A series of laws passed in 1867 that divided the South into military districts and established procedures for voter registration and new state constitutions.

104. Freedmen’s Bureau: A federal agency established in 1865 to assist freed slaves and impoverished Southerners in the transition to freedom, focusing on education, healthcare, and employment.

105. Tenure of Office Act: An 1867 law that restricted the president's power to remove certain officeholders without Senate approval, leading to President Johnson’s impeachment.

106. 14th Amendment: Ratified in 1868, this amendment granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the U.S. and guaranteed equal protection under the law.

107. Slaughterhouse Decisions: A series of Supreme Court cases in the 1870s that limited the scope of the 14th Amendment, undermining its protections for civil rights.

108. Compromise of 1877: The agreement that resolved the disputed presidential election of 1876, resulting in the withdrawal of federal troops from the South and ending Reconstruction.

109. Tammany Hall: A political organization in New York City known for its powerful political influence, corruption, and control over Democratic Party politics in the 19th century.

110. Credit Mobilier Scandal: A major political scandal in the 1870s involving railroad companies and government officials who were bribed to approve inflated contracts.

111. Liberal Republicans: A faction within the Republican Party in the 1870s that advocated for civil service reform, a return to limited government, and ending Reconstruction.

112. Stalwarts: A faction of the Republican Party that favored traditional patronage and opposed civil service reform; they were opposed by the reform-minded Half-Breeds.

113. Pendelton Civil Service Act: A law enacted in 1883 to establish a merit-based system for federal employment, marking the beginning of civil service reform in the U.S.

114. The New South: A term used to describe the South's economic growth and development following the Civil War, emphasizing industrialization and diversification.

115. Social Darwinism: A theory that applied the concept of "survival of the fittest" to societies and economies, often used to justify imperialism and inequality.

116. Horizontal Integration: A business strategy where a company acquires or merges with its competitors to consolidate market power and control prices.

117. Horatio Alger: An American author known for his young adult novels about impoverished boys and their rise to middle-class security through hard work and determination.

118. Cult of Domesticity: A prevailing value system in the 19th century that emphasized women’s roles as homemakers, emphasizing virtue, piety, and submission.

119. Frank Lloyd Wright: An influential American architect known for his innovative designs, particularly in the Prairie School movement, which emphasized harmony with nature.

120. Knights of Labor: A significant labor organization in the late 19th century that sought to unite all workers and advocated for social reforms including the eight-hour workday.

121. Jane Addams: A social reformer and co-founder of Hull House, which provided services to the poor and immigrants in Chicago, advocating for social and political reform.

122. Booker T. Washington: An African American educator and leader who advocated for vocational education and economic self-reliance for African Americans during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

123. Ghost Dance: A spiritual movement among Native Americans in the late 19th century that sought to restore their culture and bring about a renewal of the earth.

124. Dawes Act: An 1887 law aimed at assimilating Native Americans by allotting them individual plots of land and granting U.S. citizenship, which ultimately undermined tribal land.

125. Interstate Commerce Act: An 1887 law that established the Interstate Commerce Commission to regulate railroad rates and prevent discriminatory practices against shippers.

126. American Federation of Labor: A national federation of labor unions formed in 1886 that focused on skilled labor and advocated for better wages and working conditions.

127. Sherman Anti-Trust Act: An 1890 law aimed at preventing monopolies and promoting competition by prohibiting anti-competitive practices.

128. McKinley Tariff, 1890: A significant tariff that raised duties on imports to protect domestic industries, which led to increased prices and resentment from consumers.

129. Populist Party: A political party formed in the 1890s that represented the interests of farmers and laborers, advocating for monetary reform and government regulation of railroads.

130. Pullman Strike: A nationwide railroad strike in 1894 that began when workers at the Pullman Company protested wage cuts, resulting in significant violence and federal intervention.

131. Hawaiian Revolution (1893): A coup led by American businessmen and planters that overthrew Queen Liliuokalani of Hawaii, leading to eventual U.S. annexation in 1898. The revolutionaries established a provisional government backed by U.S. Marines.

132. Yellow Journalism: Sensationalized newspaper reporting popularized by Hearst and Pulitzer in the 1890s, which helped push America toward the Spanish-American War through exaggerated or fabricated stories about Spanish atrocities.

133. Open Door Notes (1899): Secretary of State John Hay's diplomatic proposal requesting that European nations maintain free trade with China and respect its territorial integrity, preventing the colonization of China.

134. Platt Amendment (1901): A set of conditions for withdrawing U.S. troops from Cuba that effectively made Cuba a U.S. protectorate, giving America the right to intervene in Cuban affairs and establish military bases.

135. Hepburn Act (1906): Strengthened the Interstate Commerce Commission by giving it the power to set maximum railroad rates and examine railroad companies' financial records.

136. Pure Food and Drug Act (1906): The first consumer protection law that required accurate labeling and prohibited the sale of contaminated food and drugs, largely inspired by Upton Sinclair's "The Jungle."

137. Muckrakers: Progressive Era journalists who exposed corruption in business and politics through detailed investigative reporting, including Ida Tarbell (Standard Oil) and Lincoln Steffens (urban corruption).

138. Roosevelt Corollary (1904): Theodore Roosevelt's addition to the Monroe Doctrine declaring that the U.S. would act as an international police power in the Western Hemisphere to prevent European intervention.

139. Gentleman's Agreement (1907): An informal agreement between the U.S. and Japan where Japan agreed to restrict emigration of Japanese laborers to America, while the U.S. would allow Japanese children to attend integrated schools in California.

140. Eugenics: A pseudo-scientific movement popular in the early 1900s that advocated selective breeding of humans to improve genetic qualities, leading to discriminatory immigration policies and forced sterilization laws.

141. Ballinger-Pinchot Dispute (1910): A controversy during Taft's presidency between conservationists and pro-development forces, centered on accusations that Interior Secretary Ballinger had improperly opened public lands to private development.

142. Sixteenth Amendment (1913): Constitutional amendment that gave Congress the power to collect income taxes without apportioning them among the states, dramatically expanding federal revenue sources.

143. "New Freedom": Woodrow Wilson's progressive campaign platform emphasizing trust-busting, banking reform, and tariff reduction, contrasting with Roosevelt's "New Nationalism" which accepted regulated monopolies.

144. NAACP (1909): The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People, founded by W.E.B. Du Bois and others to fight racial discrimination through legal action and public education.

145. I.W.W. (Wobblies): The Industrial Workers of the World, a radical labor union founded in 1905 that advocated for "One Big Union" and used direct action tactics to organize unskilled workers.

146. "Dollar Diplomacy": Taft's foreign policy that used American investment and economic power to further U.S. interests abroad, particularly in Latin America and Asia.

147. Underwood-Simmons Tariff Act (1913): Wilson's reform that significantly lowered tariff rates for the first time since the Civil War and established a graduated federal income tax.

148. Federal Reserve Act (1913): Created the Federal Reserve System as America's central bank, establishing 12 regional banks to regulate the nation's money supply and prevent financial panics.

149. Clayton Antitrust Act (1914): Strengthened the Sherman Antitrust Act by specifically prohibiting anticompetitive practices and exempting labor unions from antitrust regulations.

150. "Arabic pledge": Germany's 1915 promise not to sink passenger ships without warning after the sinking of the British liner Arabic, though this pledge was later abandoned.

151. Selective Service Act (1917): Established the draft during World War I, requiring all men aged 21-30 (later 18-45) to register for military service.

152. War Industries Board: Government agency during WWI that coordinated war production and regulated industrial resources, headed by Bernard Baruch.

153. Committee on Public Information: Government propaganda agency during WWI led by George Creel that promoted the war effort through various media and sought to shape public opinion.

154. Espionage and Sedition Acts: WWI-era laws that severely restricted free speech and gave the government broad powers to prosecute critics of the war effort.

155. Schenck vs. U.S. (1919): Supreme Court case that upheld the Espionage Act and established the "clear and present danger" test for limiting free speech.

156. Fourteen Points: Wilson's 1918 peace program that called for free trade, open diplomacy, and a League of Nations to prevent future wars.

157. Article X: Controversial section of the League of Nations covenant requiring members to defend other members against aggression, which contributed to the Senate's rejection of the Treaty of Versailles.

158. The Red Scare (1919-1920): Period of intense fear of communism and radical politics following WWI, marked by deportations, arrests, and restrictions on civil liberties.

159. Palmer Raids (1919-1920): Series of government raids on suspected radicals and anarchists ordered by Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, resulting in thousands of arrests and deportations.

160. Race Riots of 1919: Series of violent racial conflicts across America during the "Red Summer," reflecting tensions over jobs, housing, and returning black veterans.

161. Amelia Earhart: Famous female aviator of the 1920s and 30s who set numerous flying records before disappearing over the Pacific in 1937 during an attempt to fly around the world.

162. "Jazz Age": Popular name for the 1920s, characterized by new music, dance, fashion, and social attitudes that challenged traditional values.

163. 19th Amendment (1920): Granted women the right to vote nationally, culminating decades of struggle by the women's suffrage movement.

164. National Origins Act (1924): Immigration law that established quotas heavily favoring Northern and Western Europeans while virtually excluding Asians and severely limiting other groups.

165. Marcus Garvey: Leader of the Universal Negro Improvement Association who promoted black pride, economic self-reliance, and return to Africa in the 1920s.

166. Sacco and Vanzetti: Italian anarchists convicted of murder in a controversial 1921 trial and executed in 1927, becoming symbols of anti-immigrant and anti-radical sentiment.

167. "Teapot Dome": Major scandal of the Harding administration involving the secret leasing of naval oil reserves to private companies in exchange for bribes.

168. Robert M. LaFollette: Progressive Wisconsin senator who challenged corporate power and ran for president in 1924 as the Progressive Party candidate.

169. The Washington Conference (1921-22): International naval disarmament conference that produced treaties limiting battleship construction and addressing Pacific territorial issues.

170. Aimee Semple McPherson: Popular evangelical preacher of the 1920s who used radio and theatrical techniques to spread her message and embodied the era's religious fundamentalism.

171. Kellogg-Briand Pact (1928): International agreement that renounced war as an instrument of national policy, though it lacked enforcement mechanisms.

172. Hawley-Smoot Tariff (1930): Highest protective tariff in U.S. history, which contributed to the Great Depression by reducing international trade.

173. Reconstruction Finance Corporation (1932): Hoover-era agency that provided emergency loans to banks, railroads, and other businesses during the Depression.

174. Bonus Army (1932): World War I veterans who marched on Washington demanding early payment of their service bonuses, violently dispersed by the army under Hoover's orders.

175. "Hundred Days": First three months of FDR's presidency, marked by intense legislative activity and the creation of many New Deal programs.

176. Emergency Banking Relief Act (1933): First New Deal measure that declared a banking holiday and allowed federal inspection of banks before reopening.

177. FDIC: Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation, created in 1933 to insure bank deposits and prevent bank runs.

178. Civilian Conservation Corps (1933): New Deal program that employed young men in conservation and development of natural resources, providing jobs and environmental benefits.

179. Agricultural Adjustment Administration (1933): New Deal agency that paid farmers to reduce crop production to raise prices, declared unconstitutional in 1936.

180. National Industrial Recovery Act (1933): Created the NRA to establish codes of fair competition and workers' rights; declared unconstitutional in 1935.

181. Senator Huey Long: Louisiana politician who challenged FDR from the left with his "Share Our Wealth" program before his assassination in 1935.

182. Good Neighbor Policy: FDR's Latin American policy that repudiated military intervention and emphasized cooperation and trade.

183. John Maynard Keynes: British economist whose theories advocating government spending to stimulate the economy influenced New Deal policies.

184. Social Security Act (1935): Created pension system for elderly, unemployment insurance, and aid to dependent children and disabled.

185. Indian Reorganization Act (1934): Reversed the Dawes Act's policy of assimilation, restored tribal lands, and promoted Native American cultural autonomy.

186. Neutrality Acts of 1935: Series of laws designed to keep America out of foreign wars by prohibiting arms sales to belligerents.

187. Neutrality Act of 1939: Modified earlier neutrality legislation to allow "cash-and-carry" sales of arms to belligerents, aiding the Allies.

188. Wagner Act (1935): Also known as the National Labor Relations Act, protected workers' rights to unionize and engage in collective bargaining.

189. Lend-Lease Act (1941): Allowed the U.S. to supply military aid to Allied nations while technically remaining neutral in WWII.

190. Korematsu vs. United States (1944): Supreme Court case that upheld the constitutionality of Japanese American internment during WWII.