Stratton, Race and Racialism in Rock

Race and Racialism in Rock by Jon Stratton +

Rock and Whiteness in South Africa and Australia

1. South Africa's Apartheid Era (1960s):

   • Rock in South Africa was dominated by white people, especially during the apartheid era.

   • White-controlled record companies imported early rock 'n' roll for sale to white youth, with limited distribution among blacks.

   • Charles Hamm highlights the rejection of rock 'n' roll by black South Africans due to its association with white performers.

2. Mickie Most in South Africa:

   • Mickie Most, an English record producer, played a role in the early South African rock scene.

   • Produced hits like the Animals' "House of the Rising Sun" and achieved eleven number 1s in South Africa.

   • Recorded rockabilly and whitened rhythm and blues tracks for the white South African audience.

3. Evolution of South African Rock (Late 1990s):

   • By the late 1990s, South Africa produced diverse rock groups, including the Springbok Nude Girls influenced by Nirvana and the Pixies.

   • Juluka, led by Jewish Johnny Clegg and Zulu guitarist Sipho Mchunu, played rock music with Zulu influences.

   • Juluka remained active, challenging the apartheid government through their music, even after apartheid ended.

4. Australian Rock Evolution (Pre-Late 1960s):

   • In Australia, with the white Australia policy in effect until the late 1960s, rock music evolved with white groups covering British versions of African American rhythm and blues songs.

   • Examples include Billy Thorpe and the Aztecs covering the Rolling Stones' version of "Poison Ivy" and The Twilights covering the Beatles' version of Larry Williams's "Bad Boy" and the Yardbirds' version of Mose Allison's "I'm Not Talking."

5. Australian Pub Rock Tradition (1970s Onwards):

   • Bands like Billy Thorpe and the Aztecs and the Easybeats laid the foundation for Australian rock in the 1970s.

   • Contributed to the pub rock scene with bands like Rose Tattoo, The Angels, Midnight Oil, Cold Chisel, You Am I, and Powderfinger in later years.

   • AC/DC stands out as the most internationally renowned band inheriting this legacy.

6. Rock and Race Dynamics:

   • Rock's association with whiteness has been evident in various countries.

   • The racialized identity of musicians and listeners has often mirrored the distinction between rock and other genres like rhythm and blues, hip-hop, and reggae, identified as black music.

   • Rock's whiteness has been exnominated, and it has been naturalized as the most popular and culturally significant form of popular music.

From Rock against Racism to the Smiths

1. Clapton's Racist Speech (1976):

   • Eric Clapton, Hendrix's former guitar-playing rival, made a racist speech at the Birmingham Odeon in 1976.

   • Clapton expressed anti-immigrant sentiments, including derogatory terms for various ethnic groups.

   • Referenced Enoch Powell, a political figure known for a controversial anti-immigration speech in 1968.

2. Enoch Powell and "Rivers of Blood" Speech (1968):

   • Enoch Powell, shadow defense secretary, delivered the "Rivers of Blood" speech warning against black migration to the UK.

   • Powell's speech included a constituent's assertion that black individuals would dominate white individuals in the future.

3. Clapton's Disavowal of Musical Origins:

   • Clapton disavowed the origins of rock music, distancing himself from the influences of black artists.

   • Disregarded the roots of his own hit, Bob Marley's reggae track "I Shot the Sheriff."

4. Rock Against Racism (RAR) Formation:

   • Clapton's remarks led to the formation of Rock Against Racism (RAR) in Britain.

   • RAR organized gigs featuring both white rock groups and black reggae groups to counter racial prejudice.

   • Notable event: April 30, 1978, march from Trafalgar Square to Victoria Park in Hackney, featuring artists like X-Ray Spex, Tom Robinson Band, Steel Pulse, and the Clash.

5. Implicit Segregation in British Music:

   • RAR gigs highlighted implicit segregation in British popular music, with white and black artists often categorized differently.

   • The Clash, a white rock band, headlining over Steel Pulse, a black reggae group, underscored power dynamics.

6. Morrissey and the Smiths (1990s):

   • Morrissey's group, the Smiths, in the 1990s, perpetuated the taken-for-granted whiteness of rock.

   • The Smiths' cover artwork and imagery evoked a time when black cultural impact on British consciousness was minimal.

   • Morrissey expressed conspiratorial views about promoting black music in British charts and labeled reggae as "vile."

   • Fear of being overrun by black culture translated into a fear of reggae overtaking white rock music.

The “British Invasion,” Jimi Hendrix, and Whiteness

1. British Invasion and Rock Whiteness:

   • The British Invasion solidified the perception of rock as a white genre in the United States.

   • The term unifies successful UK groups, starting with the Beatles, although these groups were diverse in their styles and influences.

2. Diversity within British Groups:

   • Distinction between beat groups (e.g., Yardbirds, Kinks, Gerry and the Pacemakers) and those influenced by American blues and rhythm and blues (e.g., Animals, Rolling Stones).

   • Many British groups backed African American blues artists during UK tours.

3. Cream and Rock Genre Evolution:

   • Cream's first album in 1966, featuring songs by Willie Dixon, Robert Johnson, and Skip James, marked a shift from blues to rock.

   • Cream identified as a white rock supergroup with members Jack Bruce, Ginger Baker, and Eric Clapton, all with British blues group backgrounds.

4. Jimi Hendrix's Entry into the UK:

   • Linda Keith, a friend of Keith Richards, discovered Jimi Hendrix at the Café Wha? in New York and informed Chas Chandler, the bassist in the Animals.

   • Chandler, knowledgeable in African American music, recognized Hendrix's potential and took him to the UK.

5. Hendrix's Success in the UK:

   • Hendrix, with Noel Redding and Mitch Mitchell, formed the Experience in the UK and achieved significant success.

   • Despite his music's roots in rhythm and blues, Hendrix's success and recognition were possible in the UK rather than the racially restrictive US environment.

6. Hendrix's Influence and Revisioning:

   • Hendrix offered a revisiting of rock's origins in blues and rhythm and blues, combining it with white rock developments.

   • Recognition of Hendrix's talent by Eric Clapton and his performance with Cream.

   • Hendrix's music retained the feel of original blues prototypes, even when infused with production devices influenced by The Beatles.

7. Hendrix's Return to the US:

   • In 1968, Hendrix returned to the US and aimed to connect with a black audience, replacing Redding and Mitchell with African Americans.

   • Management and record company were aware of Hendrix's "honorary white" status among fans, advising against playing with black musicians.

8. Legacy of Jimi Hendrix:

   • Hendrix remains a unique black hero in the "classic rock" pantheon, underscoring the genre's essential whiteness.

   • Few black rock artists achieved similar popularity with white audiences as Hendrix did.

9. Disco Demolition Night (1979):

   • In 1979, Disco Demolition Night at Cominsky Park, Chicago, symbolized rock's white entitlement.

   • Steve Dahl, a white rock disc jockey, blew up records by black artists, leading to a near riot as white rock fans asserted rock's primacy.

   • Disco, identified as a black music genre, faced resistance from rock fans who considered it a threat to their genre's dominance.

Rock N Roll Origin Stories

1. Two Origin Stories:

   • Two main origin stories about the development of rock and roll involving Bill Haley & His Comets and Elvis Presley.

2. "Rock around the Clock":

   • Bill Haley & His Comets' "Rock around the Clock" is considered the breakthrough rock and roll single.

   • Released in May 1954, rereleased in May 1955, and gained popularity after being featured in the 1955 film "Blackboard Jungle."

   • Originally the B side to "Thirteen Women (And Only One Man in Town)."

   • Written by Max Freedman and James Myers, with Myers choosing the B sides for Decca releases.

   • Haley's earlier hit, "Crazy Man, Crazy," recognized rock 'n' roll elements and acknowledged the influence of black slang from the twenties and thirties.

3. Milt Gabler and Louis Jordan Influence:

   • Milt Gabler of Decca signed Haley & His Comets due to perceived similarities with Louis Jordan's rhythm and blues group.

   • Louis Jordan's Tympany Five established parameters for rhythm and blues in the late 1940s.

   • Gabler saw Haley's group as a white rhythm and blues group, catering to the white youth who might not buy records by African American artists.

4. "Thirteen Women" and Mystical Moment:

   • "Thirteen Women," a novelty song by black jazz guitarist Dickie Thompson, rewritten by Gabler for Haley's group.

   • Despite Gabler's intentions, disc jockeys preferred the B side, "Rock around the Clock," initiating its popularity.

   • Mystical moment: Disc jockeys played a track written by a Jew and recorded by a white group, erasing the traces of blackness from the original version.

5. Elvis Presley's Origin Story:

   • Elvis Presley, the son of a poor white manual laborer, enters Sun Studio in 1954 with Sam Phillips.

   • Phillips seeks a white performer who can play and sing rhythm and blues like black artists.

   • Presley, along with Bill Black and Scotty Moore, attempts "I Love You Because" but lacks spark.

   • Mysterious moment: Presley unexpectedly switches to the blues song "That's All Right (Mama)" by Arthur "Big Boy" Crudup.

   • Transformation from a country ballad singer to an innovative white rock singer.

   • Presley claims to have written the song, erasing its African American history.

6. Sam Phillips' Recognition:

   • Sam Phillips recognizes the uniqueness of Presley's performance, amazed that he knows Arthur "Big Boy" Crudup.

   • In this mythic origin story, Presley taps into the stream of African American music and makes it his own, marking a moment of conversion.

RACE AND GENRE

1. Connecting Race with Music:

   • Complexity in connecting race with music, challenging the assumption that a person's race determines the music they create.

   • "White music" often counterposed with "black music," while "European music" is used as a counterpart to "Afro-American music."

2. Exnomination of Whiteness:

   • Pervasive exnomination of whiteness leads to the association of European music with presumptive whiteness.

   • Everyday life tends to associate specific forms of music with racialized groups, contributing to the perception of rock as a white form of music.

3. Allan Moore's Critical Engagement:

   • Allan Moore critically engages with essentialism in terms like "black," "white," "Afro-American," and "European" regarding musics.

   • Acknowledges the degrees of similarity between musical pieces without limiting them to racialized groups.

4. Philip Tagg's Argument:

   • Philip Tagg questions the meaningfulness of deep-level descriptions of musical styles based on racial categories.

   • Acknowledges commonalities between certain pieces of music but highlights the need to avoid essentialism.

5. Allan Moore's Stylistic Definition of Rock:

   • Moore aims to define rock music stylistically, focusing on consistency within its musical tendencies and practices.

   • Defines style as a blend of technical features, forming objects and events, reflecting agents, processes, and the context of production.

6. Genre vs. Style in Rock:

   • Moore's definition of style aligns more with what is commonly defined as genre in popular music criticism.

   • Moore cuts across styles to identify genres that intersect with both rock and other styles of popular music.

7. Race as a Secondary Concern:

   • Moore's stylistic definition prioritizes style or genre over race.

   • Suggests that a person of any race can be a rock musician, shifting the focus from racial considerations.

8. Rock Music Studies' Definition:

   • Rock Music Studies journal limits the definition of rock, excluding genres like doo-wop, country, jazz, soul, and hip hop but including various subgenres of rock.

   • Exclusions, except for country, are genres traditionally associated with African Americans, highlighting a racial dimension in the definition.

9. Country Music's Debt to African American Influences:

   • Country music acknowledges its debt to African American influences and musicians.

   • Despite being perceived as a "pure white" genre, country music has borrowed heavily from African Americans.

10. Racial Distinction in Music Genres:

    • Rock Music Studies' genre distinctions underlie a racial distinction, where the claim to whiteness makes sense of the genres included in the journal's focus.

    • Country is mythically constructed as white music, indicating the racial limits of rock in the journal's listing

Short History of the Discourse of Race

1. Origins of Racialized Thinking:

   • Inquisition's use of "purity of blood" (limpio de sangre) in 1480 during the reconquista of the Iberian Peninsula.

   • Shift from creed-based divisions to those based on lineage, emphasizing noble descent and resistance to Moorish invaders.

2. Expulsion of Jews and Moriscos:

   • In 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella expelled Jews from Spain.

   • In 1609, King Philip III decreed the expulsion of Moriscos, descendants of forcibly converted Muslims.

   • Converted Jews and Muslims remained under suspicion.

3. Philosophical Focus on Describing Peoples:

   • Seventeenth-century philosophers increasingly focused on describing and categorizing peoples globally.

   • Late seventeenth century marked the emergence of the term "race" with consolidated meanings post-American and French revolutions.

4. Blumenbach's Classification (1775):

   • Johann Friedrich Blumenbach's "On the Natural Variety of Mankind" in 1775.

   • Introduced the term "Caucasian" for "white."

   • Initially divided humans into four varieties, later expanding to five.

   • Emphasized physical appearance in his classification system.

   • Rejects hierarchy among races, emphasizing common descent from Adam and Eve.

5. Scientific Racism and Social Evolution:

   • Scientific racism linked physical characteristics (Darwin's influence) with social evolution, leading to a racial hierarchy.

   • Darwin's "On the Origin of Species" (1859) and "The Descent of Man" (1871) played contrasting roles.

   • Scientific racialization used for ideological purposes related to nationalism, slavery, and colonialism.

6. Holocaust and Consequences:

   • The Holocaust exemplified the shocking consequences of scientific racialization.

   • Around 6 million Jews, along with Slavs, Poles, Russians, homosexuals, and people with disabilities, were targeted and exterminated.

   • Post-World War II, scientific racialization faced disrepute, especially when tied to intelligence hierarchies.

7. Post-1980s: Race, Culture, and Nationalism:

   • By the 1980s, race linked with both culture and nationalism.

   • Margaret Thatcher's 1978 statement in Britain reflected racialized fears about cultural differences affecting national identity.

   • Race continued to be a basis for prejudice, and racialized assumptions of difference and inferiority persisted in modern and postmodern societies.

8. Race in Popular Music:

   • Racial preoccupations embedded in American racially organized society.

   • Affective expressions of race in American and British popular music, as well as in popular musics of other Western heritage countries

ROCK AND RACE

1. Introduction: Lack of Discussion on Rock and Race

   • Little scholarly focus on the intersection of race and rock music.

   • Abundance of literature on African American music, commonly referred to as "black music."

   • Terms like "black music" are more prevalent than counterparts like "white music."

2. Rock's Identification as White:

   • Jack Hamilton's book "Just Around Midnight" discusses how rock became discursively identified as white.

   • Rock's whiteness was constructed through stories and narratives, shaping the perception of an entire era of music.

3. Early Identification of Rock as White:

   • By the early 1970s, the whiteness of rock was already ingrained in cultural perception.

   • African American critic Margo Jefferson expressed concern about the exclusion of blacks from rock music history in 1973.

4. Zeppelin's Role in Whitening Rock:

   • Led Zeppelin's music, rooted in African American blues, became emblematic of the British Invasion.

   • Zeppelin's hard rock reinterpretations often detached from the blues origins, contributing to the whitening of rock.

5. Importance of British Invasion in Whitening Rock:

   • British rhythm and blues groups played a significant role in importing African American music to the UK.

   • The love for African American music by these groups paradoxically contributed to the whitening of rock in the United States.

6. Personal Discoveries of Blues through British Bands:

   • Examples of artists like Bruce Springsteen, Robert Cray, and rock journalist Peter Guralnick discovering the blues through British bands of the 1960s and 1970s.

7. Impact on American Garage Bands:

   • Many young Americans, forming garage bands, were influenced by British Invasion groups, perpetuating the whitening of rock in the United States.

8. Separation from Juvenile Delinquency and Black Associations:

   • The influence of European glamour, through discotheques playing British invasion music, distanced rock 'n' roll from its associations with juvenile delinquency and black Americans.

9. Unsettling Revision in "Back to the Future":

   • Mention of the 1985 film "Back to the Future," where an unsettling fictional moment erases African American origins of rock music, reinforcing a new white origin.

10. Lack of Discussion on Rock's Whiteness:

    • Scarcity of scholarly work discussing rock's whiteness.

    • Three main ways the whitening of rock has been discussed: as white appropriation, black music's self-segregation, and, most commonly, not discussed at all.

11. Challenges in Discussing Rock's Racial Exclusivity:

    • Rock discourse historically averts discussions of race.

    • Attempts to address the racial exclusivity of rock have faced hostility, particularly within fandoms.

    • Emphasis on the need to consider the discourse of race and its connection with music