Unit 0 — Classical Era & Second-Wave Empires

Persian Achaemenid Empire (Around 550 – 330 Years Before Common Era)

• Foundation & Size

  • Started by Cyrus the Great. It grew from the Indus River Valley (which is now Pakistan) all the way to the Balkans (which is in Europe).

  • At its biggest, it controlled about 50% of all the people in the world!

• How it was Ruled (A plan for later empires)

  • Satrapies: These were like different states or provinces, and each had a leader called a satrap (like a governor today).

  • They used tax collectors to gather money and translators to help people from different cultures understand each other. This made it easier to rule such a big empire.

  • They used the same gold coins everywhere, which made trading easier, helped pay soldiers, and made markets grow.

  • They built a Royal Road and a postal system that made travel and sending messages much safer and faster. Other empires later copied this idea.

• Religion & How they treated cultures

  • The Emperor was seen as very special, almost like a god. Most people followed a religion called Zoroastrianism.

  • Usually, they were fair and let people keep their own religions and customs. This made it easier to control people and helped prevent rebellions.

• What they left behind

  • Their way of running an empire was copied by the Hellenistic, Roman, and Arab empires that came later.

  • They had an idea that the government should help its people, which was linked to their Zoroastrian beliefs about doing good. This idea was used much later to explain why governments should build things for everyone.

Macedonia & Alexander the Great

• Philip II (King from 359 – 336 Years Before Common Era)

  • He made the army stronger by changing how they fought, using long spears called sarissas in a formation called a phalanx.

  • He won an important fight called the Battle of Chaeronea (338 Years Before Common Era) against Athens and Thebes, which gave him control over all of Greece.

• Alexander the Great (Ruled from 336 – 323 Years Before Common Era)

  • He quickly stopped a rebellion in Thebes. Then he started conquering lands to the east, defeating the Achaemenid Persian Empire.

  • His empire reached all the way to the Indus River (in modern-day Pakistan and India). Even though it didn't last long, it was the strongest empire of its time.

  • He spread Greek culture everywhere he went and built new cities (like Alexandria in Egypt) that became important centers for learning and culture.

  • He was taught by Aristotle, a famous philosopher, which helped spread Aristotle's ideas about science and thinking.

Hellenistic Era (323 – 31 Years Before Common Era)

• Time Period: This era started when Alexander died and ended around the Battle of Actium (31 Years Before Common Era), which led to the fall of the Ptolemaic rule in Egypt (30 Years Before Common Era).

• How the Land was Divided:

  • After Alexander, his generals split his empire into several new kingdoms. These included the Seleucid, Ptolemaic, Pergamon, Greco-Bactrian, and Indo-Greek kingdoms.

  • During this time, many new Greek cities were built across Southwest Asia and Northeast Africa.

• Blending of Cultures:

  • This era saw a mix of Greek, Western Asian, and Northeast African cultures.

  • It was a time when arts, theater, buildings, math, astronomy, and philosophy flourished (grew strong and successful).

  • Some people thought this time was a period of change or even decline compared to the earlier "Classical Greece." However, it was a very creative time.

Roman Republic (Around 509 – 27 Years Before Common Era)

• How it Grew:

  • It first brought together the area we now call Italy. Then it fought wars in Gaul (France) and Spain.

  • The Punic Wars (264 – 146 Years Before Common Era) were big fights against Carthage. Rome learned how to be strong on the sea and eventually destroyed Carthage. There's a story (probably not true) that they even put salt on the soil so nothing would grow there again.

  • They defeated Macedonia and the Hellenistic kingdoms, becoming the most powerful force around the Mediterranean Sea.

• Social Classes & Government:

  • There were two main groups: the Patricians (the rich, powerful families) and the Plebeians (the common people). There were also many slaves.

  • Over time, money and land became concentrated in the hands of a few, which caused much social trouble (like the big slave rebellion led by Spartacus from 73 – 71 Years Before Common Era).

• Military System:

  • Roman citizens served as soldiers in groups called legions. They were often given land after their service, which made the army strong during expansion. But when there wasn't much new land to conquer, this system caused problems.

Roman Empire (27 Years Before Common Era – 476 Years In the Common Era in the West / 1453 Years In the Common Era in the East)

• Changing from Republic to Empire:

  • Julius Caesar and his adopted son Augustus ended the Republic in 27 Years Before Common Era, making emperors the new rulers.

• How Far it Reached: It spread from Spain all the way to western Persia (Iran), completely surrounding the Mediterranean Sea, which they called "Mare Nostrum" (Our Sea).

• How it was Run:

  • They took ideas from the Persian model, having governors in each province. Rome was the main center for politics, religion, and trade.

  • They had a huge network of roads and used the Mediterranean Sea for easy travel by ship.

  • They gave citizenship to many people they conquered, except in harsh cases (like the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE70CE).

• Society & Laws:

  • Rich people got special tax breaks, which sometimes helped them stay loyal for a short time but made the empire weaker financially in the long run.

  • Women slowly gained more rights, like owning property and being protected from unfair killings.

• Religion:

  • At first, Christians were treated badly. But this changed when Constantine issued the Edict of Milan in 313 CE313CE, which made Christianity legal and tolerated.

  • Even later, the Edict of Thessalonica (380 CE) made Christianity the official state religion of the Roman Empire.

• Why it Fell:

  • Rich people tried to avoid paying taxes, there were problems with how to reward soldiers, the empire became too big to manage, and there were fights inside the empire. Also, tribes like the Germanic groups and Huns invaded.

  • The empire split in 330 CE330CE into a Western part (which fell in the 5th century) and an Eastern part (called the "Byzantine Empire," which lasted until 1453 CE1453CE).

South Asian Religious Foundations

Hinduism

• Holy Books: The Vedas (first passed down by speaking, then written in Sanskrit) and the Upanishads.

• Main Ideas:

  • Brahman: This is thought of as the forever-lasting, unchanging source of all creation.

  • Atman: This is your individual soul, which is believed to be a part of Brahman.

  • Dharma: This refers to your duty or how you should act to keep the universe in order.

  • Karma & Samsara: Your actions in this life (karma) affect what happens to you in the next life (samsara), which is a cycle of being born again and again.

• Social Order:

  • People were grouped into Varnas (4 main classes): Brahmins (priests/teachers), Kshatriyas (warriors/rulers), Vaishyas (farmers/merchants), and Shudras (laborers). There were also people called Untouchables who were outside these groups.

  • Jati were even smaller groups (sub-castes). People usually couldn't move between these groups; where you were born showed your actions from a past life.

Buddhism (6th – 5th Centuries Before Common Era)

• It started as a way of thinking that was different from the traditional Vedic rituals and the caste system.

• Key Beliefs:

  • Life is full of suffering (dukkha). The way to stop suffering is to reach a state called Nirvana, where all craving and desire end.

  • It did not follow the ideas of Brahman, Atman, or the caste system.

• How it Spread:

  • It spread through communities of monks and appealed to people in the lower castes.

  • The Mauryan emperor Ashoka (ruled from 268 –232 BCE268–232BCE) helped it spread by building special monuments (stupas) and sending people to teach others.

  • Eventually, Buddhism became less common in India but spread along the Silk Road and across the Indian Ocean to East and Southeast Asia.

Maurya Empire (322 – 185 Years Before Common Era)

• This was the first time that a large part of India was united under one ruler. The capital city was Pataliputra.

• Ashoka’s Rule:

  • After a very violent war called the Kalinga War, Ashoka felt terrible and became a Buddhist. He then promoted kind behavior (dharma edicts) and built many helpful things for his people.

  • He tried to make Buddhism the official religion, but it did not last forever because Hindu traditions were very strong.

Gupta Empire (Around 320 – 550 Years In the Common Era)

• This time is often called the "Golden Age of India" because there was a lot of peace and wealth.

• Important Achievements:

  • Mathematics: They developed the decimal system (our number system), the idea of place value, and the concept of 00.

  • Science: People made advances in astronomy (studying stars), medicine, and metal work.

  • Literature & Arts: Famous plays by Kalidasa and the Kama Sutra were created during this time.

• Why it Declined: The empire faced invasions from the Huns, and the different regions and strict caste system made it harder to stay united. There was also a lot of linguistic diversity (many different languages).

China: From Warring States to Powerful Empire

Warring States Period (475 – 221 Years Before Common Era)

• During this time, many different states in China were constantly fighting each other. The Zhou king had lost almost all his power.

• This period of conflict led to big changes in how the government and army were run and also inspired new ways of thinking and philosophies.

Legalism

• The main goal of Legalism was to make the ruler and the government very strong through strict laws (Fa), good administration, and a realistic approach to power.

• Key Thinkers:

  • Shen Buhai: Believed in choosing government workers based on their skills, not their family.

  • Shang Yang: Made important changes in the Qin state to centralize power, like changes in how land was owned and how the army was organized.

• It's like a Western idea called Machiavellian Realpolitik, which means being practical and sometimes ruthless to gain and keep power.

Confucianism

• Started by Confucius (551 – 479 Years Before Common Era). His ideas grew during a time when many different philosophies were discussed.

• Main Ideas:

  • Believed that people are naturally good and can become even better through education and proper behavior (Li).

  • Focused on Five Key Relationships: (ruler and subject, father and son, husband and wife, older and younger siblings, and friends).

  • Emphasized filial piety, which means deep respect for parents and elders, leading to harmony in families and society.

• Adopted by the State:

  • The Han Emperor Wu (ruled from 141 – 87 Years Before Common Era) made Confucianism the official way of thinking for the government. It became the basis for special civil-service exams to pick government officials.

Qin Dynasty (221 – 206 Years Before Common Era)

• Qin Shi Huang conquered and united all of China. He ruled with very strict Legalist ideas.

• Changes & Big Projects:

  • He made everything the same: money, weights, measures, and writing.

  • He started huge building projects, like an early version of the Great Wall, a vast road system, and the famous Terracotta Army.

• How he was seen: Later historians, who followed Confucian ideas, often wrote about him as a mean and harsh ruler (saying he burned books and buried scholars alive – though this is still discussed by historians).

Han Dynasty (202 Years Before Common Era – 220 Years In the Common Era)

• Started by Liu Bang after the Qin Dynasty fell apart and a power struggle between Chu and Han.

• How it was Organized:

  • The Emperor ruled with the help of smart government officials (scholar-gentry). The empire was divided into commanderies (regions) and some areas were semi-independent kingdoms (though these were later brought under tighter control).

• Money and Trade:

  • They changed the money system (with a specific coin becoming standard in 119 BCE119BCE), and the government controlled important resources like salt and iron (though these monopolies were later stopped).

  • The Silk Road trade routes expanded into the Tarim Basin, leading to more trade with lands around the Mediterranean Sea.

• Important Inventions:

  • They invented papermaking, the rudder (for steering ships), discovered negative numbers, and created a seismometer (a device to detect earthquakes).

• Relations with Other Countries:

  • They fought wars with the Xiongnu (nomadic people from the north). Emperor Wu's military campaigns split the Xiongnu groups and made the borders safer.

  • They also took control of southern regions and parts of Korea (like Nanyue, Dian, Xuantu, and Lelang).

• Why it Declined: Power struggles between palace officials and aristocrats, a big peasant uprising called the Yellow Turban Rebellion, and then the empire broke into Three Kingdoms.

Zoroastrianism

• Formed by the Prophet Zoroaster. It was the main religion for Iranian empires from about 600 Years Before Common Era to 650 Years In the Common Era.

• Key Beliefs:

  • Ahura Mazda is the one wise creator (meaning it's a religion with one God).

  • It believes in two main forces in the world: good versus evil. They believe good will win in the end.

• Its Impact:

  • Ideas like a savior figure, heaven and hell, a final judgment day, and free will from Zoroastrianism influenced Judaism, Christianity, Islam, and other belief systems, possibly even Buddhism.

Second-Temple Judaism (515 Years Before Common Era – 70 Years In the Common Era)

• This period began after Jerusalem's Temple was rebuilt following the Jewish people's return from being exiled in Babylon (King Cyrus allowed them to return in 538 BCE538BCE).

• Key Developments: The collection of Hebrew holy writings (canon) was finalized, places of worship called synagogues became important, and apocalyptic literature (writings about the end of the world) became common.

• During this time, Early Christianity began within the Jewish community.

Christianity

• How it Started:

  • It began as a Jewish group that believed Jesus of Nazareth was the Messiah (a special leader expected by the Jewish people). His followers, called apostles, spread his message around the Mediterranean Sea.

• Separating from Judaism:

  • More and more non-Jewish people (called gentiles or "God-fearers") became interested. After the destruction of the Jewish Temple in Jerusalem in 70 CE70CE, Christianity grew apart from Judaism.

• Supported by the Empire:

  • The Edict of Milan (in 313 CE313CE) made it legal to be Christian, so Christians were no longer punished.

  • The Council of Nicaea (in 325 CE325CE) helped set up the official beliefs and rules of Christianity.

  • The Edict of Thessalonica (380 CE) officially made Christianity the state religion of the Roman Empire.

• How it Grew:

  • When the head of a household (paterfamilias) converted, his whole family and slaves often converted too, which made it spread much faster.

  • The strategy of converting local rulers often led to large groups of their people also becoming Christian.

  • It required people to choose only Christianity, which meant they couldn't mix it with other religions.

• Its Role After Rome:

  • The Pope became an important political leader (for example, Pope Leo faced the Huns).

  • Missionaries spread Christianity to Germanic, Celtic, Slavic, and Baltic peoples.

  • Different Christian beliefs (like Arian and Catholic) had a big impact on who held power in Europe.