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AP Psychology Unit 2

• Title: Scientific Foundations of Psychology

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About this Unit

• Transition from religious/philosophical explanations to modern psychological perspectives.

• Overview of major viewpoints in psychology.

• Discussion on psychological research methods.

• Importance: 10-14% of the AP Exam, including Free Response Questions on Research Design, affecting final grade significantly.

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Table of Contents

• 2.1 Introduction to Psychology

• 2.2 Research Methods

• 2.3 The Experimental Method

• 2.4 Statistical Analysis

• 2.5 Selecting a Method

• 2.6 Ethical Guidelines

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2.1 Introduction to Psychology Objectives

• Recognize the impact of philosophical and physiological perspectives on psychological thought.

• Identify contributions of major historical figures in psychology.

• Compare different theoretical approaches to behavior.

• Understand strengths and limitations of psychological theories.

• Distinguish various domains of psychology.

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What is Psychology?

• Defined as the scientific study of behavior and mental processes.

• Science is a systematic method for organizing knowledge through testable predictions.

• Behavior: All overt actions (e.g., talking, reactions).

• Mental Processes: Internal activities of the mind (e.g., thinking, feeling, remembering).

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Pre-Psychology

• Psychology is a relatively new social science emerging from ancient philosophical, religious, and physiological explanations.

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History of Psychology: Structuralism

• Originated in Leipzig, Germany (1879) with Wilhelm Wundt.

• Focused on the structure of the mind through objective introspection (self-reporting after stimuli exposure).

• Edward Titchener introduced structuralism to the US, emphasizing consciousness’ structure.

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History of Psychology: Functionalism

• Introduced by William James, focused on the function of the mind in helping individuals adapt and thrive.

• Authored the first psychology textbook.

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History of Psychology: Gestalt Psychology

• Max Wertheimer rejected structuralism; asserted perceptions cannot be simplified to parts.

• Gestalt emphasizes that the whole experience is greater than the sum of its components.

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History of Psychology: Psychoanalysis

• Founded by Sigmund Freud, explored unconscious conflicts impacting psychological disorders.

• Psychoanalysis extends beyond psychology, influencing various fields including art and literature.

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History of Psychology: Behaviorism

• Ivan Pavlov demonstrated involuntary reactions (classical conditioning).

• John Watson proposed behaviorism, emphasizing only observable behavior, dismissing introspective techniques.

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Contemporary Perspectives: Psychodynamic and Behavioral

• Psychodynamic theory evolved from Freud’s ideas, focusing more on self-development.

• Behavioral perspective was transformed by B.F. Skinner, emphasizing operant conditioning and stimulus-response relations.

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Contemporary Perspectives: Humanistic

• Humanistic psychology emerged in response to behaviorism and psychoanalysis.

• Advocated by figures like Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers, focusing on free will and personal growth.

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Contemporary Perspectives: Biopsychological and Evolutionary

• Biopsychology studies biological foundations of behavior.

• Evolutionary psychology looks at mental traits as evolutionary adaptations through natural selection.

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Contemporary Perspectives: Sociocultural and Cognitive

• Sociocultural perspective explores the intersection of social behavior and cultural context.

• Cognitive psychology examines internal processes like memory and problem-solving.

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Psychological Professionals

• Psychologist: Trained professional in psychology.

• Psychiatrist: Medical doctor specializing in mental disorder treatment.

• Psychiatric Social Worker: Social worker trained in therapy methods.

• Research in psychology can be basic (knowledge-building) or applied (practical solutions).

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Areas of Specialization

• Clinical, Counseling, Developmental, Experimental, Personality, and Physiological psychologists each specialize in distinct research and treatment areas.

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Areas of Specialization

• Neuropsychologists, Comparative psychologists, Educational psychologists, School psychologists, and Sports psychologists focus on unique applications of psychology.

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Areas of Specialization

• Forensic, Community, and Environmental psychologists address legal, societal, and environmental interactions with psychology.

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Assessment and Supplemental Resources

• Evaluations through quizzes like Kahoot.

• Recommended resources: Crash Course Psychology, History of Psychology.

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2.2 Research Methods Objectives

• Differentiate various research types based on strengths and weaknesses.

• Discuss the importance of operational definitions and measurement.

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Critical Thinking

• Critical thinking involves evaluating claims based on evidence.

• Key questions to aid critical thinking include understanding claims, alternative interpretations, and additional evidence.

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Critical Thinking and Scientific Research

• Scientific inquiries start with complex questions that unfold into numerous related queries.

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Critical Thinking and Scientific Research

• Hypothesis formulation and operational definitions are crucial for clarity in research.

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Critical Thinking and Scientific Research

• Validity and reliability of evidence are assessed to evaluate research findings.

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The Role of Theories

• Theories in science provide comprehensive explanations, but must be revised as new evidence emerges.

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Research Methods: Observation

• Naturalistic observation involves unobtrusive watching in the natural environment.

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Research Methods: Case Studies

• In-depth examination of a particular individual or group in specific situations.

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Research Methods: Surveys

• Surveys collect data on attitudes and beliefs through questionnaires or interviews.

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Research Methods: Correlational Studies

• Analyze relationships between variables; correlation indicates the strength and direction of relationships.

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Experiments

• Experiments involve manipulating variables to observe effects while controlling others.

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Assessment and Supplemental Resources

• Suggested readings and resources on research methods in psychology.

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2.3 The Experimental Method Objectives

• Identify types of variables in experimental designs.

• Understanding research design implications on conclusions drawn.

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Basics of Experiments

• Independent variable (manipulated) vs. dependent variable (measured); control for confounding variables.

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Selecting Participants in Psychological Research

• Importance of sampling; random vs. representative samples to avoid bias.

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Groups and Bias in Psychological Research

• Understanding experimental and control groups; implementation of double-blind designs to minimize bias.

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Assessment and Supplemental Resources

• Suggested articles and resources related to research designs.

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2.4 Statistical Analysis Objectives

• Understanding descriptive versus inferential statistics in psychological research.

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Statistical Analysis of Research Results

• Key measures of central tendency: mean, median, mode, and range.

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Example Set

• Calculation of range, mean, median, and mode using a sample data set from AP Psychology cohort.

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Descriptive Statistics

• Visual data representation through graphs (e.g. histograms).

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Example Histogram

• Understanding the graphical representation of data through histograms.

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Descriptive Statistics

• Standard deviation as a measure of data variance; understanding its calculations.

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Example Data Distribution

• Visual representation of data points across a set range.

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Inferential Statistics

• Procedures to infer meanings from research data; understanding statistical significance.

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Assessment and Supplemental Resources

• Practical exercises for statistical calculations and additional resources for understanding statistics.

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2.5 Selecting a Method Objectives

• Assess research design quality and validity of behavioral explanations.

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Thinking Through Validity

• Criteria for assessing validity in research studies and common methodological flaws.

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Assessment and Supplemental Resources

• Recommendations for articles and resources for re-writing free response questions if needed.

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2.6 Ethical Guidelines Objectives

• Understanding ethics in research for participant protection and sound practices.

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Research Ethics with Human Subjects

• Rights of participants: informed consent, protection from harm, confidentiality, and debriefing responsibilities.

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Assessment and Supplemental Resources

• Flipgrid assessments and APA Ethical Principles and Code of Conduct.