Comparative politics Test 3: China

CHINA'S HISTORY

Dynasty

Family or clan that ruled in China from Shang through the end of the Qing.  Rulership was handed to the eldest son.  Sometimes family members sought the position of emperor by using various means including violence to claim the title.  When a new family/clan gained power, the name of the dynasty would change.  Note that the name of a dynasty is not necessarily the name of the family/clan.  For instance, the Ming Dynasty was founded by Zhu Yuanzhang.  The word "ming" for the dynasty means bright or brilliant.

Emperor

The emperor in China was like a monarch with vast powers.  Any challenge to his (one female empress) rule was met ruthlessly.  Emperors ruled with the "mandate of heaven" (see below)

Mandate of Heaven

Legitimacy for the emperor's rule based on the cosmological belief that there could only be one ruler and that ruler had the blessing of the gods.  An emperor could lose the "mandate" and be overthrown should he rule improperly.  Often floods, famine and attacks by northern nomadic groups changed who had the mandate.

Qin Dynasty, 221-206 BCE

Qin was the name of an area controlled by Ying Zheng, the king of Qin.  He overthrew surrounding kingdoms and proclaimed himself "emperor" (huangdi) instead of king and became known as the "first emperor" of China. 

Daoism (the "Way" & and not Taoism)

Religion and philosophy originating in China (Buddhism originated in India).  Belief in harmony and the natural order of things through the "way" or "Dao."  Pantheon of gods or deities in Daoist cosmology.  Daoism is the basis for Chinese traditional medicine.  Daoist monks live a very simple lifestyle and are vegetarians.

Zheng He

1371--1433 (or 1435).  Admiral during the Ming Dynasty (1368--1644) who was Muslim and made seven voyages in what was then the largest ships in the world.  Traveled to Southeast Asia, coast of India, the Persian Gulf and Red Sea, and even the east coast of Africa (Somalia area).  Brought back artifacts and animals.  However, his travels were abruptly ended due to financial difficulties and threats from the north.  Also, ruling elites at the time saw no need to pursue exploration.

"Forbidden City" [Imperial Palace]

[See photo below].  Built during the Ming Dynasty in Beijing the capital. Home to 14 Ming and 10 Qing dynasty emperors.  No one allowed in without the consent of the emperor. Essentially a city in itself that consisted of over 9,000 rooms to house ruling elites, servants, and concubines.  Now a museum.

Qing Dynasty

1644--1911/12:  Followed the decline of the Ming Dynasty and invasion of Manchus from the north.  Consisted of 10 emperors, the last being Puyi who was too young to rule so was guided by the Empress Dowager (Cixi) on his behalf.  Despite the challenge of the west, the Empress Dowager saw little need to reform the political system and had reformers with recommendations executed.

Lord (George) MacCartney

British statesman and diplomat who was sent by King George III to China to negotiate opening up trade relations with China in 1793. 

Qianlong Emperor

[see painting below].  Emperor during the Qing Dynasty that oversaw China's territorial expansion e.g. Tibet.   Met with Lord MacCartney but declined his request for opening up to Britain.

"Century of humiliation"

Period, roughly 1842--1949, where foreign powers (Britain, Japan, Germany, France, US) sought to influence China through imperialism and colonialism.  The Chinese Communist Party calls this time period the "century of humiliation" and continuously vows to never let it happen again.

Opium

Addictive drug grown from poppy plants.  Given by work gang bosses in China to workers to numb pain and reduce hunger feeling. Also used by upper class in opium dens.

Unequal treaties

Series of treaties with Britain, Japan, France, Germany and the US that granted reparations for foreign losses in military conflicts with China, control and sovereignty over some territory e.g. Hong Kong, and access to ports and trade on western terms.

Extraterritoriality

Foreigners exempt from Chinese jurisdiction should they be arrested by Chinese police.  Instead tried in the court and by the laws of the country they're from.

Sun Yat-sen

[Mandarin:  Sun Zhongshan] Revolutionary and statesman who established the Nationalist Party (KMT/Guomindang) and was the first provisional president of the newly created Republic of China.  Died in 1925 and was succeeded by Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi).  Considered to be the "Father of the Nation" for both China and Taiwan.

Republic of China

Name given to China after the fall of the emperor system in 1911.  Sun Yat-sen was its initial leader.  In 1949, China became the "People's Republic of China" while Taiwan maintained the name "Republic of China."

May Fourth Movement, 1919

Part of China's "New Culture Movement" that was critical of traditional Chinese values and China's inability to successfully oppose western imperialism.  The May 4th Movement itself was led by students in Tiananmen Square who opposed the Treaty of Versailles (WWI) that allowed Japan to retain the territories held by Germany in Shandong Province.

Nationalist Party (KMT)

 Initially called "The Revive Party" created by Sun Yat-sen in Honolulu in 1894. Became the Nationalist Party in the 1920s.  Party leadership was taken over by Chiang Kai-shek upon Sun's death. Nationalist Party claimed to be the only legitimate party of China for decades after its formation.  Fought with the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) in the late 1920s and early 1930s.  Joined a "united front" with the CCP against Japanese aggression.  Party leadership fled to Taiwan in 1949 and continued to rule there.

Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi)

Known as "Generalissimo." Head of the Nationalist Party, commander of the Nationalist Revolutionary Army, and leader of the Republic of China (in China and in Taiwan).  Ruled like a dictator in Taiwan and was succeeded by his son there.  Gained military support from the US during the Anti-Japanese War and the civil war with the CCP (1945-49).

Chinese Communist Party (CCP)

Founded in 1921 in Shanghai by Chen Duxiu and others.  Mao Zedong became its leader in the late 1920s.  CCP gained support from peasants due to land reform.  Joined the Nationalist Party against the Japanese invasion.  Has been THE main party ruling China since 1949.

Mao Zedong (Chairman Mao)

CCP leader, theorist, and philosopher, military strategist.  Was a founding member of the CCP in Shanghai.  Led peasant revolts and land reform against landlords; helped organize and lead the CCP Army against the Nationalist army and eventually establish the PRC in 1949.  Promoted the Great Leap Forward which was aimed at rapid industrialization and the creation of communism in China.  His writings became the "Little Red Book" used during the Cultural Revolution.

Northern Expedition

Nationalist Revolutionary Army and CCP joined forces to unify China after it had fallen into warlordism in the early 1900s.  [Warlordism = military cliques formed after Yuan Shikai died in 1916.  They controlled large areas of China until the early 1930s].

Japanese invasion

Japan attacked China in 1937 but had already controlled Manchuria (under Chinese control before then) and set up a puppet government in 1931.  Estimates of Chinese who died during the war with Japan range from 14--20 million.

Nanjing Massacre ("Rape of Nanjing")

Japanese army massacre of 100,000--200,000 Chinese in the city of Nanjing over several weeks.  Rape, pillage, burning, looting, and slaughter occurred on a mass scale.  Estimates of the number dead vary because the Japanese destroyed documents and tried to cover up the evidence.   The massacre was part of the Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal evidence at the end of WWII.  Some in Japan still deny the incident happened. For more info:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanjing_Massacre#Controversy;

Civil War, 1945-49

With the end of WWII Japan was no longer a threat.  The Nationalist Government army and the CCP continued to fight over who should rule China.  Eventually the CCP armies won in 1949.

People's Republic of China

Officially established on October 1, 1949, when Mao Zedong announced that "China had stood up…"

Land reform

After achieving power, the CCP began a campaign of land reform (a part of its doctrine that had been carried out earlier) to provide land to poor peasants.  Landlord resistance was brutally suppressed.

Great Leap Forward

1958-60.  Mao Zedong's attempt at rapid industrialization and creation of communism with the radical reorganization of the countryside into communes where land, implements and labor were shared on a large scale.  The disruption to production led to wide-spread famine.  Approximately 30 million people died.

Cultural Revolution

With the failure of the Great Leap Forward and perception that "capitalist" and traditional (read Confucianist) thinking were regaining influence, Mao unleashed the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution [see image below] to "weed out" "capitalist-roaders" and other "bad social classes" with the help of the Red Guards, organized youth who had "good class" backgrounds.  Main targets included landlords (from before), business people, the educated (especially western).  Many monuments and traditional Chinese artifacts were destroyed.  The Forbidden City however was preserved.  Schools closed down and everyone had to read "Quotations from Chairman Mao."  Common chant at the time:  "Long live Chairman Mao!"

Deng Xiaoping

Revolutionary, high-ranking CCP member, and statesmen who was criticized during the Cultural Revolution and then became China's paramount leader beginning in 1978.  Promoted opening up to the west and market reforms.  Did not support democracy.  Considered the architect of China's "socialism with Chinese characteristics" and the saying:  "It doesn't matter whether a cat is black or white, if it catches mice it's a good cat…"  While Deng was clearly the most important leader but never was president.

"Socialism with Chinese Characteristics"

Economic approach that combines market and state-run enterprises promoted by Deng Xiaoping as a recipe to attract foreign capital, technology, and export destinations.  Became a popular slogan in the 1990s.

1989 Student Movement & Massacre

Students gathered in Tiananmen Square in April, May, and June of 1989, to protest CCP policies and the socio-economic situation.  In addition to demanding freedom and democracy, students protested the rising wealth gap that economic reform created.   On June 4th, tanks and army moved in stop the movement and clear Tiananmen Square area.  Number of deaths vary from several hundred to several thousand.

7/1/1997: Hong Kong returns to China

Hong Kong was returned to China based on a 1984 British-Chinese agreement, ending 156 years of British colonial rule (1841--1997).  Hong Kong had been ceded to China as part of the Treaty of Nanjing (ending the First Opium War).  Hong Kong sovereignty returned to China under the "50 year" agreement:  China would not change Hong Kong for 50 years.

2019-2020 Hong Kong Protests

Major demonstrations against China's policy of not expanding democracy in Hong Kong and introducing a bill that would allow extradition and trial in China of a Hong Kong citizen.  Later a National Security Law was passed that allows the arrest of anyone committing treason and/or sedition. 

Xi Jinping

Current Secretary-General of the CCP; Chairman of the Central Military Commission; and President.  Member of the 5th generation of Chinese leaders (born after the PRC was established in 1949).  Currently 71 years old.  Major Xi Jinping policies include crackdown on corruption; reinstitute CCP discipline; strengthen CCP ideological control; develop and strengthen China's military; reassert state control over major industries; expand China's economic and political influence abroad through the Belt and Road Initiative.

Xi Jinping Thought

Ideological doctrine based on Xi's interpretation of Chinese Marxism that promotes China's goal of "national rejuvenation" via "Socialism with Chinese Characteristics."  Students and CCP members are required to read Xi's works.

CHINA'S POLITICAL SYSTEM

CCP National Party Congress

Largest selected group of CCP leaders.  Only meets every five years.  Role is symbolic as it approves decisions made at the top by the Politburo and its Standing Committee.  Elected for five year terms.

CCP Central Committee

Select group of CCP members above the National Party Congress that meets annually.  Elected for five year terms.  205 full members.  Main source of membership for the Politburo.

CCP Politburo

Apex of CCP power.  Membership varies, generally around 24 members.   Officially chosen by the CCP Central Committee but members in reality already determined. Produces statements announcing CCP policy decisions, targets and achievements.  Also is the source of membership for the Standing Committee.

CCP Politburo Standing Committee

Highest level of CCP and national power consisting of 7 members who occupy key positions in other areas of the CCP hierarchy and in China's executive and legislative institutions.

Secretary-General of CCP

The singularly most important position in the CCP and for the country in terms of decision-making.  Position currently held by Xi Jinping.

Central Military Commission

Office that controls China's military, the People’s Liberation Army.  Chair of the commission is held by the CCP's Secretary-General, currently Xi Jinping

"Red Capitalist"

Private businessmen allowed to become CCP members in 2001, reversing communist ideology.  Argument:  China's socialism has reached a such a level of success the CCP need not fear about capitalists organizing and opposing socialism.

Parallel positions control mechanism

Interlocking network of highest level CCP members who occupy positions in different political institutions to ensure CCP policy implementation.  Premier, for instance, is always a member on the CCPs Politburo Standing Committee.

Premier

Position heading the executive branch of the government responsible for implementing domestic and foreign policies from the national level down to the township (lowest) level of government.  Responsible for leading the State Council, China's "cabinet."

State Council

China's "cabinet" headed by the Premier.  All members are also high ranking CCP members.

National People's Congress (NPC)

Unicameral legislative body that theoretically has the responsibility of creating and amending China's laws, approve the State's budget and declare war.  In reality, the CCP directs all major aspects.  Nearly 3000 members, meets once every five years after the CCP's 5-year meeting.  NPC has a president who is currently Xi Jinping.

CHINA: POLITICAL CULTURE, PARTICIPATION, CIVIL SOCIETY, MEDIA

Patriotism

The devotion to one's country and way of life with images of national flag, song and other national identifiers.  Different from "nation" though both can exist and operate at the same time as occurs in China.

GONGOs

"Government-operated non-governmental organizations." Approved non-profits that help with addressing poverty and in disaster relief.  

White Paper Protest

Protest against China's draconian "Zero-COVID" policy.  Demonstrators held blank white paper in front of their faces to both protest and avoid being identified.

Great Firewall

Called Golden Shield by Chinese.  Party-State control over social media to prevent protests and criticism of the government.

CHINA:  POLITICAL ECONOMY--ECONOMIC GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

Real GDP/PPP

Largest GDP in the world when measured by purchasing power parity (PPP) at 31.2 Trillion

Trade Balance

Measurement of imports and exports of a country to indicate which is greater.  Currently the US has a large trade imbalance with China.

Iron Rice Bowl

Policy until the mid-1980s consisting of life-time employment, health care, retirement security of people who lived urban areas.

Special Economic Zones

Created by Deng Xiaoping. Areas along China's coast designated to provide open economic opportunities for foreign businesses to invest and manufacture goods for export.

Export-led Development

Economic strategy used by China to rapidly develop its economy.  Emphasizes opening the domestic market for the production of goods to export in the international market.  Attracts foreign investment and technology.  A key feature for China's rapid economic growth.

“Socialism with Chinese Characteristics”

Slogan and statement by China's Party-State to describe China's economic system.  In essence, China has state-capitalism where the State owns a majority of major companies (called State-operated enterprises). [see below]

SOEs (State-owned enterprises)

SOEs account for over 60% of China's market capitalization (value of a company traded in the stock market) and generate about 23-28% of China's GDP.  A number of SOEs (91 in 2020) are listed on Fortune Global 500.  They mainly occupy enterprises in the energy, telecommunications, and military equipment sectors.  Some SOEs are joint-ventures with foreign companies e.g. auto industry.  SOEs invest in private companies blurring the distinction between public and private ownership of businesses.

Tariff

A tax by a government on imported or exported goods to raise prices and protect the goods manufactured in that country.  The US imposed tariffs on imported goods from China under the Trump administration and continuing under Biden.

Zero-COVID policy

Approach China took during the pandemic involving mass testing, quarantined and locked down cities.  Caused decline in most economic activities and growth.

Property Market

Buying and selling of property (mostly condos) by Chinese that led to enormous wealth accumulation until recently when supply became greater than demand.  Property development companies and local governments facing loss of revenue.  Some companies have failed.

BYD

Chinese EV manufacturer that now is the largest in the world.  Seeks to export its EVs everywhere.

semiconductors/chips

Used in virtually all aspects of modern life including computers, cellphones, autos, appliances; also military weapons.  Central to AI development.  China has imported the most sophisticated chips until recently when the US policy forbade the sale by companies in Taiwan and the Netherlands.  China now seeks to develop its own high-level production.  Semiconductors/chips have become a central issue between China and the US.

Hukou

A residence permit required for anyone to live in an urban area.  Allows access to education, housing, and social services.  People in the countryside do not have a hukou.  Migrants from the countryside who work in urban factories lack access to those amenities without a hukou. Is a key reason for the divide between rural and urban China.

CHINA:  POPULATION, ETHNICITY, STATUS OF WOMEN AND LGBTQ

Total Fertility Rate (TFR)

Number of children a woman will bear in her lifetime.  China's TFR has fallen below "replacement level" (2.1 per family).  China now faces population decline which will affect its economic development and the provision of services to the elderly as their population increases.

One-child Per Family

Program instituted in 1980 to reduce China's booming population growth by using fines, forced contraception, sterilization, and abortion to achieve its goal.  Policy had negative impact on male-female ratio because of the preference for male babies.  Rescinded in 2016 because of the decline in births and thus population growth. 

Xinjiang

An ethnic autonomous zone (like a province) in northwestern China where mostly Muslims live and who speak a language related to Turkish.  Has been the center of controversy due to China's policies aimed at addressing terrorism and Islamic extremism.

Surveillance system

Massive system in China involving cameras, facial recognition technology, internet monitors (called "internet opinion analysts") to identify and scrub messages on social media, police, and programs requiring individuals to watch over neighborhoods to identify those who are considered potentially disruptive to the political system.

“Vocational and Educational Training”

Program China says it uses in Xinjiang to help Uighurs.  Human rights organizations, the UN, the US and other western countries claim these training centers are detention centers that act as prisons to eliminate extreme religious ideology and force Muslims to assimilate into Chinese culture.

Xinjiang Police Files

Leaked photos and information that substantiate the claim about planned mass detention camps in China for Uighurs who are believed to carry out "illegal activities" linked to Islamic extremism.

 “Women hold up half the sky”

Statement by Mao Zedong to emphasize gender equality under socialism.  Led to policies and offices designated to providing gender equality including marriage and land laws and the All-China Women's Federation.

Gender Asset Gap

Gender disparity in wealth and ownership of property.

"Leftover Women"

Women over the age of 27 who choose not to get married or have children; choose to get educated, have a career, etc.  Now officially castigated because of the impact on the birth rate.

ShanghaiPRIDE

LGBTQ non-governmental organization (NGO) that holds a variety of events in Shanghai each year to celebrate LGBTQ.  Starting in 2020, the activity has been on hold due to pressure from the government.