(11) Anatomy and physiology 1 final review
Focus for Adelphi University and Nassau Community College students.
100-question exam, primarily on neurology.
Video available on YouTube for further reference.
Somatic vs. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Understand the differences.
The Somatic Nervous System is associated with voluntary movements like skeletal muscle movements
The Autonomic Nervous System is associated with involuntary movements in the body like the heart beating
Branches of ANS:
Sympathetic - The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for physical activity or the “fight or flight” response
Parasympathetic - The parasympathetic nervous system helps the body cool down and lowers the heart rate + breathing
CNS - Composes of the brain and spinal cord, Sensory Output + Motor Input
PNS - Composes of the nervous system that lies outside the brain and spinal cord, Sensory input + Motor output (Includes Somatic and Autonomic)
Key differences should be clearly understood.
Sympathetic Division: Thoracolumbar outflow.
Parasympathetic Division: Craniosacral outflow.
Effects on digestion:
Sympathetic: Slows digestion.
Parasympathetic: Speeds up digestion.
Distinguish between action potentials and graded potentials.
Action Potentials - Used for long distance signaling, digital signal, and is located in the axon
Graded Potentials- Used for information integration, short distance, located in dendrites
Types of channels in neuron membranes:
Leakage channels - Constantly open channels allowing a small steady flows of ions across the membrane
Gated channels - Channels that open and close for certain stimuli
Ligand channels - Open and close in response to the binding of a certain chemical molecule to the channel protein
Resting Membrane Potential (RMP):
RMP = -70mV;
Understand intracellular and extracellular contexts
Sodium and potassium distribution:
More sodium extracellularly.
More potassium intracellularly.
Key phases include:
Resting Membrane Potential (-70mV)
Threshold (-55mV)
Sodium gates open, peak at +30mV.
Sodium gates close, potassium gates open.
Repolarization to -70mV.
Hyperpolarization below -70mV (potassium gates close slowly).
Know correct order for matching section.
Continuous vs. Saltatory Conduction.
Continuous Conduction - is a slower process of action potential propagation in unmyelinated axons.
Saltatory Conduction - is a process that allows action potentials to travel much faster along myelinated axons.
Summation Types:
Spatial summation - multiple presynaptic neurons send signals to a single postsynaptic neuron simultaneously
Temporal summation - focuses on the timing of signals from a single presynaptic neuron.
Familiarize with A, B, C fibers:
A fibers - These fibers are the thickest and are heavily myelinated. They are primarily responsible for somatic motor function and proprioception.
B fibers - These fibers are moderately myelinated and have a small diameter. Their primary role is to transmit autonomic information
C fibers - These fibers are unmyelinated and have a small diameter. They are involved in the afferent transfer of temperature, burning pain, and itch.
excitatory (or EPSPs) if they increase the likelihood of a postsynaptic action potential occurring, and inhibitory (or IPSPs) if they decrease this likelihood.
Neurotransmitter removal from synaptic cleft.
Know these neurotransmitters:
Acetylcholine - an important neurotransmitter that plays a role in brain functions, such as memory, and body functions, such as muscle contractions to move your muscles
GABA - It's known for its calming effect and is thought to play a role in controlling anxiety, stress, and fear.
Glutamate - it stimulates nerve cells to send chemical messages. Glutamate is essential for learning, memory, and mood regulation
Dopamine - It plays a role in many important body functions, including movement, memory and pleasurable reward and motivation
Serotonin - it regulates various activities, including behavior, mood, memory, and gastrointestinal homeostasis
Norepinephrine - neurotransmitter of the brain that plays an essential role in the regulation of arousal, attention, cognitive function, and stress reactions
Epinephrine - a hormone and medication used to treat life-threatening allergic reactions and other medical emergencies:
Review effects regarding conditions like Parkinson's disease, neuroplasticity, and neuroregeneration in CNS vs PNS.
Importance of neurolemma in regeneration.
The neurolemma forms a regeneration tube that guides the axon to reconnect
Review meninges:
Dura Mater, Arachnoid, Subarachnoid Space, Pia Mater.
Denticulate Ligament
Basic spinal cord anatomy:
Dorsal and Ventral Roots, cauda equina, filum terminale, conus medullaris.
Understand myelination status inside vs. outside spinal cord.
Identify sensory and motor tracts; sensory tracks ascend and motor tracts descend.
Review posterior columns, fasciulus cuneatus and fasciulus gracilis.
Familiarity with reflex arcs and their components:
Golgi tendon organ reflex, stretch reflex, flexor reflex, Babinski reflex, crossed extensor reflex.
Understand epineurium, endoneurium, and perineurium.
Review the plexi:
Cervical, Brachial, Lumbar, Sacral
Associated levels and nerves (e.g., phrenic nerve).
Clinical conditions resulting from nerve damage:
Radial nerve damage (drop hand), Ulnar nerve damage (claw hand), Median nerve damage (ape hand).
Review sources and causes of sciatica.
Go over cranial nerves - especially cranial nerve five and its sensory and motor components.
Study dermatomes for upper and lower extremities (C5-T1, L1-S1).
Blood supply (Circle of Willis), flow of cerebrospinal fluid (ventricles, foramen of Monroe, cerebral aqueduct).
Key areas:
Medulla oblongata and cranial nerves, vagus nerve significance
Midbrain features: Red nucleus, Substantia nigra
Functions of cerebellum, thalamus vs. hypothalamus, pituitary vs. pineal glands.
Basal ganglia vs. limbic system.
Differentiate between precentral gyrus (motor area) and postcentral gyrus (sensory area).
Understand functions of Broca's and Wernicke's areas and types of aphasia.
Left and right hemisphere functions.
EEG and wave types associated with it.
Know definitions and differences between ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes, and the nature of TIA.
Expect 10 questions on cranial nerves by Roman numeral, name, and function.
Mixed format: multiple choice, matching, true/false.
Importance of thorough review and study to perform well.
Focus for Adelphi University and Nassau Community College students.
100-question exam, primarily on neurology.
Video available on YouTube for further reference.
Somatic vs. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Understand the differences.
The Somatic Nervous System is associated with voluntary movements like skeletal muscle movements
The Autonomic Nervous System is associated with involuntary movements in the body like the heart beating
Branches of ANS:
Sympathetic - The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for physical activity or the “fight or flight” response
Parasympathetic - The parasympathetic nervous system helps the body cool down and lowers the heart rate + breathing
CNS - Composes of the brain and spinal cord, Sensory Output + Motor Input
PNS - Composes of the nervous system that lies outside the brain and spinal cord, Sensory input + Motor output (Includes Somatic and Autonomic)
Key differences should be clearly understood.
Sympathetic Division: Thoracolumbar outflow.
Parasympathetic Division: Craniosacral outflow.
Effects on digestion:
Sympathetic: Slows digestion.
Parasympathetic: Speeds up digestion.
Distinguish between action potentials and graded potentials.
Action Potentials - Used for long distance signaling, digital signal, and is located in the axon
Graded Potentials- Used for information integration, short distance, located in dendrites
Types of channels in neuron membranes:
Leakage channels - Constantly open channels allowing a small steady flows of ions across the membrane
Gated channels - Channels that open and close for certain stimuli
Ligand channels - Open and close in response to the binding of a certain chemical molecule to the channel protein
Resting Membrane Potential (RMP):
RMP = -70mV;
Understand intracellular and extracellular contexts
Sodium and potassium distribution:
More sodium extracellularly.
More potassium intracellularly.
Key phases include:
Resting Membrane Potential (-70mV)
Threshold (-55mV)
Sodium gates open, peak at +30mV.
Sodium gates close, potassium gates open.
Repolarization to -70mV.
Hyperpolarization below -70mV (potassium gates close slowly).
Know correct order for matching section.
Continuous vs. Saltatory Conduction.
Continuous Conduction - is a slower process of action potential propagation in unmyelinated axons.
Saltatory Conduction - is a process that allows action potentials to travel much faster along myelinated axons.
Summation Types:
Spatial summation - multiple presynaptic neurons send signals to a single postsynaptic neuron simultaneously
Temporal summation - focuses on the timing of signals from a single presynaptic neuron.
Familiarize with A, B, C fibers:
A fibers - These fibers are the thickest and are heavily myelinated. They are primarily responsible for somatic motor function and proprioception.
B fibers - These fibers are moderately myelinated and have a small diameter. Their primary role is to transmit autonomic information
C fibers - These fibers are unmyelinated and have a small diameter. They are involved in the afferent transfer of temperature, burning pain, and itch.
excitatory (or EPSPs) if they increase the likelihood of a postsynaptic action potential occurring, and inhibitory (or IPSPs) if they decrease this likelihood.
Neurotransmitter removal from synaptic cleft.
Know these neurotransmitters:
Acetylcholine - an important neurotransmitter that plays a role in brain functions, such as memory, and body functions, such as muscle contractions to move your muscles
GABA - It's known for its calming effect and is thought to play a role in controlling anxiety, stress, and fear.
Glutamate - it stimulates nerve cells to send chemical messages. Glutamate is essential for learning, memory, and mood regulation
Dopamine - It plays a role in many important body functions, including movement, memory and pleasurable reward and motivation
Serotonin - it regulates various activities, including behavior, mood, memory, and gastrointestinal homeostasis
Norepinephrine - neurotransmitter of the brain that plays an essential role in the regulation of arousal, attention, cognitive function, and stress reactions
Epinephrine - a hormone and medication used to treat life-threatening allergic reactions and other medical emergencies:
Review effects regarding conditions like Parkinson's disease, neuroplasticity, and neuroregeneration in CNS vs PNS.
Importance of neurolemma in regeneration.
The neurolemma forms a regeneration tube that guides the axon to reconnect
Review meninges:
Dura Mater, Arachnoid, Subarachnoid Space, Pia Mater.
Denticulate Ligament
Basic spinal cord anatomy:
Dorsal and Ventral Roots, cauda equina, filum terminale, conus medullaris.
Understand myelination status inside vs. outside spinal cord.
Identify sensory and motor tracts; sensory tracks ascend and motor tracts descend.
Review posterior columns, fasciulus cuneatus and fasciulus gracilis.
Familiarity with reflex arcs and their components:
Golgi tendon organ reflex, stretch reflex, flexor reflex, Babinski reflex, crossed extensor reflex.
Understand epineurium, endoneurium, and perineurium.
Review the plexi:
Cervical, Brachial, Lumbar, Sacral
Associated levels and nerves (e.g., phrenic nerve).
Clinical conditions resulting from nerve damage:
Radial nerve damage (drop hand), Ulnar nerve damage (claw hand), Median nerve damage (ape hand).
Review sources and causes of sciatica.
Go over cranial nerves - especially cranial nerve five and its sensory and motor components.
Study dermatomes for upper and lower extremities (C5-T1, L1-S1).
Blood supply (Circle of Willis), flow of cerebrospinal fluid (ventricles, foramen of Monroe, cerebral aqueduct).
Key areas:
Medulla oblongata and cranial nerves, vagus nerve significance
Midbrain features: Red nucleus, Substantia nigra
Functions of cerebellum, thalamus vs. hypothalamus, pituitary vs. pineal glands.
Basal ganglia vs. limbic system.
Differentiate between precentral gyrus (motor area) and postcentral gyrus (sensory area).
Understand functions of Broca's and Wernicke's areas and types of aphasia.
Left and right hemisphere functions.
EEG and wave types associated with it.
Know definitions and differences between ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes, and the nature of TIA.
Expect 10 questions on cranial nerves by Roman numeral, name, and function.
Mixed format: multiple choice, matching, true/false.
Importance of thorough review and study to perform well.