knowt logo

(11) Anatomy and physiology 1 final review

Anatomy and Physiology 1 Review for Final Exam

  • Focus for Adelphi University and Nassau Community College students.

  • 100-question exam, primarily on neurology.

  • Video available on YouTube for further reference.

Neurological Systems Overview

  • Somatic vs. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

    • Understand the differences.

      • The Somatic Nervous System is associated with voluntary movements like skeletal muscle movements

      • The Autonomic Nervous System is associated with involuntary movements in the body like the heart beating

    • Branches of ANS:

      • Sympathetic - The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for physical activity or the “fight or flight” response

      • Parasympathetic - The parasympathetic nervous system helps the body cool down and lowers the heart rate + breathing

Central Nervous System (CNS) vs. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

  • CNS - Composes of the brain and spinal cord, Sensory Output + Motor Input

  • PNS - Composes of the nervous system that lies outside the brain and spinal cord, Sensory input + Motor output (Includes Somatic and Autonomic)

  • Key differences should be clearly understood.

Outflows of the Nervous System

  • Sympathetic Division: Thoracolumbar outflow.

  • Parasympathetic Division: Craniosacral outflow.

  • Effects on digestion:

    • Sympathetic: Slows digestion.

    • Parasympathetic: Speeds up digestion.

Neural Signals

  • Distinguish between action potentials and graded potentials.

    • Action Potentials - Used for long distance signaling, digital signal, and is located in the axon

    • Graded Potentials- Used for information integration, short distance, located in dendrites

  • Types of channels in neuron membranes:

    • Leakage channels - Constantly open channels allowing a small steady flows of ions across the membrane

    • Gated channels - Channels that open and close for certain stimuli

    • Ligand channels - Open and close in response to the binding of a certain chemical molecule to the channel protein

  • Resting Membrane Potential (RMP):

    • RMP = -70mV;

    • Understand intracellular and extracellular contexts

    • Sodium and potassium distribution:

      • More sodium extracellularly.

      • More potassium intracellularly.

Action Potential Stages

  • Key phases include:

    1. Resting Membrane Potential (-70mV)

    2. Threshold (-55mV)

    3. Sodium gates open, peak at +30mV.

    4. Sodium gates close, potassium gates open.

    5. Repolarization to -70mV.

    6. Hyperpolarization below -70mV (potassium gates close slowly).

  • Know correct order for matching section.

Conduction Types

  • Continuous vs. Saltatory Conduction.

    • Continuous Conduction - is a slower process of action potential propagation in unmyelinated axons.

    • Saltatory Conduction - is a process that allows action potentials to travel much faster along myelinated axons.

  • Summation Types:

    • Spatial summation - multiple presynaptic neurons send signals to a single postsynaptic neuron simultaneously

    • Temporal summation - focuses on the timing of signals from a single presynaptic neuron.

Fiber Types

  • Familiarize with A, B, C fibers:

    • A fibers - These fibers are the thickest and are heavily myelinated. They are primarily responsible for somatic motor function and proprioception.

    • B fibers - These fibers are moderately myelinated and have a small diameter. Their primary role is to transmit autonomic information

    • C fibers - These fibers are unmyelinated and have a small diameter. They are involved in the afferent transfer of temperature, burning pain, and itch.

  • excitatory (or EPSPs) if they increase the likelihood of a postsynaptic action potential occurring, and inhibitory (or IPSPs) if they decrease this likelihood.

  • Neurotransmitter removal from synaptic cleft.

Key Neurotransmitters

  • Know these neurotransmitters:

    • Acetylcholine - an important neurotransmitter that plays a role in brain functions, such as memory, and body functions, such as muscle contractions to move your muscles

    • GABA - It's known for its calming effect and is thought to play a role in controlling anxiety, stress, and fear. 

    • Glutamate - it stimulates nerve cells to send chemical messages. Glutamate is essential for learning, memory, and mood regulation

    • Dopamine - It plays a role in many important body functions, including movement, memory and pleasurable reward and motivation

    • Serotonin - it regulates various activities, including behavior, mood, memory, and gastrointestinal homeostasis

    • Norepinephrine - neurotransmitter of the brain that plays an essential role in the regulation of arousal, attention, cognitive function, and stress reactions

    • Epinephrine - a hormone and medication used to treat life-threatening allergic reactions and other medical emergencies:

  • Review effects regarding conditions like Parkinson's disease, neuroplasticity, and neuroregeneration in CNS vs PNS.

  • Importance of neurolemma in regeneration.

    • The neurolemma forms a regeneration tube that guides the axon to reconnect

Meninges and Spinal Cord Anatomy

  • Review meninges:

    • Dura Mater, Arachnoid, Subarachnoid Space, Pia Mater.

    • Denticulate Ligament

  • Basic spinal cord anatomy:

    • Dorsal and Ventral Roots, cauda equina, filum terminale, conus medullaris.

  • Understand myelination status inside vs. outside spinal cord.

  • Identify sensory and motor tracts; sensory tracks ascend and motor tracts descend.

Aspects of Pain and Temperature

  • Review posterior columns, fasciulus cuneatus and fasciulus gracilis.

  • Familiarity with reflex arcs and their components:

    • Golgi tendon organ reflex, stretch reflex, flexor reflex, Babinski reflex, crossed extensor reflex.

Peripheral Nerves and Plexi

  • Understand epineurium, endoneurium, and perineurium.

  • Review the plexi:

    • Cervical, Brachial, Lumbar, Sacral

    • Associated levels and nerves (e.g., phrenic nerve).

  • Clinical conditions resulting from nerve damage:

    • Radial nerve damage (drop hand), Ulnar nerve damage (claw hand), Median nerve damage (ape hand).

Sciatica and Cranial Nerves

  • Review sources and causes of sciatica.

  • Go over cranial nerves - especially cranial nerve five and its sensory and motor components.

  • Study dermatomes for upper and lower extremities (C5-T1, L1-S1).

Central Nervous System Structures and Functions

  • Blood supply (Circle of Willis), flow of cerebrospinal fluid (ventricles, foramen of Monroe, cerebral aqueduct).

  • Key areas:

    • Medulla oblongata and cranial nerves, vagus nerve significance

    • Midbrain features: Red nucleus, Substantia nigra

    • Functions of cerebellum, thalamus vs. hypothalamus, pituitary vs. pineal glands.

    • Basal ganglia vs. limbic system.

Brain Function and Pathophysiology

  • Differentiate between precentral gyrus (motor area) and postcentral gyrus (sensory area).

  • Understand functions of Broca's and Wernicke's areas and types of aphasia.

  • Left and right hemisphere functions.

  • EEG and wave types associated with it.

Strokes and TIA

  • Know definitions and differences between ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes, and the nature of TIA.

Cranial Nerves Matching

  • Expect 10 questions on cranial nerves by Roman numeral, name, and function.

Exam Format

  • Mixed format: multiple choice, matching, true/false.

  • Importance of thorough review and study to perform well.

KJ

(11) Anatomy and physiology 1 final review

Anatomy and Physiology 1 Review for Final Exam

  • Focus for Adelphi University and Nassau Community College students.

  • 100-question exam, primarily on neurology.

  • Video available on YouTube for further reference.

Neurological Systems Overview

  • Somatic vs. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

    • Understand the differences.

      • The Somatic Nervous System is associated with voluntary movements like skeletal muscle movements

      • The Autonomic Nervous System is associated with involuntary movements in the body like the heart beating

    • Branches of ANS:

      • Sympathetic - The sympathetic nervous system prepares the body for physical activity or the “fight or flight” response

      • Parasympathetic - The parasympathetic nervous system helps the body cool down and lowers the heart rate + breathing

Central Nervous System (CNS) vs. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

  • CNS - Composes of the brain and spinal cord, Sensory Output + Motor Input

  • PNS - Composes of the nervous system that lies outside the brain and spinal cord, Sensory input + Motor output (Includes Somatic and Autonomic)

  • Key differences should be clearly understood.

Outflows of the Nervous System

  • Sympathetic Division: Thoracolumbar outflow.

  • Parasympathetic Division: Craniosacral outflow.

  • Effects on digestion:

    • Sympathetic: Slows digestion.

    • Parasympathetic: Speeds up digestion.

Neural Signals

  • Distinguish between action potentials and graded potentials.

    • Action Potentials - Used for long distance signaling, digital signal, and is located in the axon

    • Graded Potentials- Used for information integration, short distance, located in dendrites

  • Types of channels in neuron membranes:

    • Leakage channels - Constantly open channels allowing a small steady flows of ions across the membrane

    • Gated channels - Channels that open and close for certain stimuli

    • Ligand channels - Open and close in response to the binding of a certain chemical molecule to the channel protein

  • Resting Membrane Potential (RMP):

    • RMP = -70mV;

    • Understand intracellular and extracellular contexts

    • Sodium and potassium distribution:

      • More sodium extracellularly.

      • More potassium intracellularly.

Action Potential Stages

  • Key phases include:

    1. Resting Membrane Potential (-70mV)

    2. Threshold (-55mV)

    3. Sodium gates open, peak at +30mV.

    4. Sodium gates close, potassium gates open.

    5. Repolarization to -70mV.

    6. Hyperpolarization below -70mV (potassium gates close slowly).

  • Know correct order for matching section.

Conduction Types

  • Continuous vs. Saltatory Conduction.

    • Continuous Conduction - is a slower process of action potential propagation in unmyelinated axons.

    • Saltatory Conduction - is a process that allows action potentials to travel much faster along myelinated axons.

  • Summation Types:

    • Spatial summation - multiple presynaptic neurons send signals to a single postsynaptic neuron simultaneously

    • Temporal summation - focuses on the timing of signals from a single presynaptic neuron.

Fiber Types

  • Familiarize with A, B, C fibers:

    • A fibers - These fibers are the thickest and are heavily myelinated. They are primarily responsible for somatic motor function and proprioception.

    • B fibers - These fibers are moderately myelinated and have a small diameter. Their primary role is to transmit autonomic information

    • C fibers - These fibers are unmyelinated and have a small diameter. They are involved in the afferent transfer of temperature, burning pain, and itch.

  • excitatory (or EPSPs) if they increase the likelihood of a postsynaptic action potential occurring, and inhibitory (or IPSPs) if they decrease this likelihood.

  • Neurotransmitter removal from synaptic cleft.

Key Neurotransmitters

  • Know these neurotransmitters:

    • Acetylcholine - an important neurotransmitter that plays a role in brain functions, such as memory, and body functions, such as muscle contractions to move your muscles

    • GABA - It's known for its calming effect and is thought to play a role in controlling anxiety, stress, and fear. 

    • Glutamate - it stimulates nerve cells to send chemical messages. Glutamate is essential for learning, memory, and mood regulation

    • Dopamine - It plays a role in many important body functions, including movement, memory and pleasurable reward and motivation

    • Serotonin - it regulates various activities, including behavior, mood, memory, and gastrointestinal homeostasis

    • Norepinephrine - neurotransmitter of the brain that plays an essential role in the regulation of arousal, attention, cognitive function, and stress reactions

    • Epinephrine - a hormone and medication used to treat life-threatening allergic reactions and other medical emergencies:

  • Review effects regarding conditions like Parkinson's disease, neuroplasticity, and neuroregeneration in CNS vs PNS.

  • Importance of neurolemma in regeneration.

    • The neurolemma forms a regeneration tube that guides the axon to reconnect

Meninges and Spinal Cord Anatomy

  • Review meninges:

    • Dura Mater, Arachnoid, Subarachnoid Space, Pia Mater.

    • Denticulate Ligament

  • Basic spinal cord anatomy:

    • Dorsal and Ventral Roots, cauda equina, filum terminale, conus medullaris.

  • Understand myelination status inside vs. outside spinal cord.

  • Identify sensory and motor tracts; sensory tracks ascend and motor tracts descend.

Aspects of Pain and Temperature

  • Review posterior columns, fasciulus cuneatus and fasciulus gracilis.

  • Familiarity with reflex arcs and their components:

    • Golgi tendon organ reflex, stretch reflex, flexor reflex, Babinski reflex, crossed extensor reflex.

Peripheral Nerves and Plexi

  • Understand epineurium, endoneurium, and perineurium.

  • Review the plexi:

    • Cervical, Brachial, Lumbar, Sacral

    • Associated levels and nerves (e.g., phrenic nerve).

  • Clinical conditions resulting from nerve damage:

    • Radial nerve damage (drop hand), Ulnar nerve damage (claw hand), Median nerve damage (ape hand).

Sciatica and Cranial Nerves

  • Review sources and causes of sciatica.

  • Go over cranial nerves - especially cranial nerve five and its sensory and motor components.

  • Study dermatomes for upper and lower extremities (C5-T1, L1-S1).

Central Nervous System Structures and Functions

  • Blood supply (Circle of Willis), flow of cerebrospinal fluid (ventricles, foramen of Monroe, cerebral aqueduct).

  • Key areas:

    • Medulla oblongata and cranial nerves, vagus nerve significance

    • Midbrain features: Red nucleus, Substantia nigra

    • Functions of cerebellum, thalamus vs. hypothalamus, pituitary vs. pineal glands.

    • Basal ganglia vs. limbic system.

Brain Function and Pathophysiology

  • Differentiate between precentral gyrus (motor area) and postcentral gyrus (sensory area).

  • Understand functions of Broca's and Wernicke's areas and types of aphasia.

  • Left and right hemisphere functions.

  • EEG and wave types associated with it.

Strokes and TIA

  • Know definitions and differences between ischemic and hemorrhagic strokes, and the nature of TIA.

Cranial Nerves Matching

  • Expect 10 questions on cranial nerves by Roman numeral, name, and function.

Exam Format

  • Mixed format: multiple choice, matching, true/false.

  • Importance of thorough review and study to perform well.

robot