Note
5.0(3)
Explore Top Notes
Chapter 24: Forensic DNA Databases: Tools for Crime Investigation
noteNote
studied byStudied by 10 people
5.0(1)
Introducing Rhetoric: Using the “Available Means”
noteNote
studied byStudied by 58 people
5.0(1)
Chapter 5: Sensation and Perception
noteNote
studied byStudied by 55 people
5.0(1)
Imperialism Rise in Nationalism • During the French and Industrial Revolution, nationalism continued to inspire nations to increase their political and economic power. • Nationalism became the ideal force in the political, economic, and cultural life in the world, becoming the first universal ideology-organizing all people into a nation state. Nationalism Defined • The strong belief that the interest of a particular nation-state is of primary importance. o Nation-State – a state where the vast majority shares the same culture and is conscious of it. It is an ideal in which cultural boundaries match up with political ones. • As an ideology, it is based on the idea that the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpass other individual/group interests. • Exalting one nation’s belief above all others and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests, excluding the interests of others. Changing the World through a Nationalistic Vision • The French Revolution significantly changed the political world and how countries govern. • The Industrial Revolution significantly changed the economic world. • The Age of Imperialism (1870-1914) dramatically changed the political, economic, and social world. What is Imperialism? • Imperialism- The policy of extending the rule of authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies. Power and influence are done through diplomacy or military force. Reasons for Imperialism • There are 5 main motives for empires to seek to expand their rule over other countries or territories: 1. Exploratory • Imperial nations wanted to explore territory unknown to them. • The main purpose for this exploration of new lands was for resource acquisition, medical or scientific research. o Charles Darwin • Other reasons: o Cartography (map making) o Adventure 2. Ethnocentric • Europeans acted on the concept of ethnocentrism o Ethnocentrism- the belief that one race or nation is superior to others. • Ethnocentrism developed out of Charles Darwin’s “survival of the fittest” theory. Philosophers used the theory to explain why there were superior races and inferior races. o This became known as Social Darwinism. • Most imperial nations believed that their cultural values or beliefs were superior to other nations or groups. • Believed imperial conquest would bring successful culture to inferior people. 3. Religious • Imperial expansion promoted a religious movement of people setting out to convert new members of conquered territories. • With the belief that Christianity was superior, missionaries believed it was their duty to spread Christianity to the world. • Christian missionaries established churches, and in doing so, they spread Western culture values as well. • Typically, missionaries spread the imperial nation's language through education and religious interactions. 4. Political • Patriotism and Nationalism helped spur our imperial growth, thus creating competition against other supremacies. • It was a matter of national pride, respect, and security. • Furthermore, European rivalry spurred nations for imperial conquest. Since land equaled power, the more land a country could acquire the more prestige they could wield across the globe. • Empires wanted strategic territory to ensure access for their navies and armies around the world. • The empire believed they must expand, thus they needed to be defended. 5. Economic • With the Industrial Revolution taking place during the same time, governments and private companies contributed to find ways to maximize profits. • Imperialized countries provided European factories and markets with natural resources (old and new) to manufacture products. • Trading posts were strategically placed around imperialized countries to maximize and increase profits. o Such places as the Suez Canal in Egypt which was controlled by the British provided strategic choke hold over many European powers. o Imperial powers competed over the best potential locations for resources, markets, and trade. History of Imperialism • Ancient Imperialism 600 BCE-500 CE o Roman Empire, Ancient China, Greek Empire, Persian Empire, Babylonian Empire. • Middle Age Imperialism (Age of Colonialism-1400-1800s) o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Netherlands (Dutch), Russia. • Age of Imperialism 1870-1914 o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Japan, United States, Ottoman Empire, Russia. • Current Imperialism...? o U.S. Military intervention (i.e. Middle East) o Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine. Imperialism Colonialism • Refers to political or economic control, either legally or illegally. • Refers to where one nation assumes control over the other. • Creating an empire, expanding into neighboring regions and expanding the dominance far outside its borders. • Where a country conquers and rules over other regions for exploiting resources from the conquered country for the conqueror's benefit. • Foreign government controls/governs a territory without significant settlement. • Foreign government controls/governs the territory from within the land being colonized. • Little to no new settlement established on fresh territory. • Movement to settle to fresh territory. Age of Colonialism WHEN? • Started around the late 1400s and ended around the late 1700s/early 1800s. WHY? • Primary Reason: European countries, wished to find a direct trade route to Asia (China & India) and the East Indies. o Quicker and relatively more effective than land routes over Asia. • Secondary Reason: Empire expansion (land power) WHO? • Countries involved: Great Britain, France, Spain, the Dutch & Portugal. • Individuals’ knowns as Mercantilists believed that maintaining imperialized territory and colonizing the region could serve as a source of wealth, while personal motives by rulers, explorers, and missionaries could therefore promote their own agenda. o This agenda being “Glory, God and Gold”. Mercantilism • Mercantilism was a popular and main economic system for many European nations during the 16th to 18th centuries. • The main goal was to increase a nation’s wealth by promoting government rule of a nation’s economy for the purpose of enhancing state power at the expense of rival national power. • It was the economic counterpart of political absolutism. Why did mercantilists want colonies? • Mercantilists believed that a country must have an excess of exports over imports. • By colonizing territory, it provided the nation with indispensable wealth of precious raw materials. • Therefore, the claimed territory served as a market and supplier of raw materials for the mother country. Which, in time, provided an excess of exports for the nation and thus created wealth. o Development of Trading Companies to support this economic system. Hudson Bay Company – (1670). Controlled primarily North America. o Dutch East Indie Trading Company (1682) o East Indian Trading Company (1600) o Royal African Trade Company (1672) WHERE? • European nations begun to colonize the America, India and the East Indies to create a direct trade route. • Great Britain was the leading power in India, Australia and North America, South Africa. • Spain colonized central and South America. • French held Louisiana, coastal land of Africa and French Guinea. • The Dutch built an empire in the East Indies. • The Portuguese was able to take control of present-day Brazil and the southern tip of South America and Japan. Age of Colonialism • As countries started to imperialize these regions, eventually the concept of colonization took hold: • This is what makes the Age of Colonialism extremely different! End of Colonialism • By 1800, colonialism became less popular • Why? o Revolutions (Spain, France & American) o The Napoleonic Wars o Struggle for nationalism and democracy. o Exhausted all money and energy to supervise their colonies. Waiting to wake again • Imperialism would stay quiet for close to 50 years before Great Britain and France’s economies revitalized. • The outbreak of the Industrial Revolution only encouraged and revitalized European nations to begin their conquest for new territory and resources. Age of Imperialism THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA 1870-1914 Conditions Prior to Imperialism of Africa  European interest in exploiting Africa was minimal.  Their economic interests & profit in Africa primarily came through coastal trade that took place during the 1500-1700s.  The slave trade became the main source of European profit.  Furthermore, disease, political instability, lack of transportation and unpredictable climate all discouraged Europeans from seeking territory. Slave Trade & the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyages  Forced labor was not uncommon during the 13-17th Centuries. Africans and Europeans had been trading goods and people across the Mediteranea for centuries.  This all changed from 1526 to 1867, as a new system of slavery was introduced that became highly “commercialized, racialized and inherited”  By 1690, the America and West Indies saw approximately 30,000 African people shipped from Africa. A century later, that number grew to 85,000 people per year.  By 1867, approximately 12.5 million people (about twice the population of Arizona) left Africa in a slave ship. What Changed? 1. End of the Slave Trade- Left a need for trade between Europe and Africa. 2. Innovation in technology- The steam engine and iron hulled boats allowed Europe 3. Discovery of new raw materials- Explorers located vast raw materials and resources and this only spurred imperialism with Europe in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. 4. Politics- Unification of Germany and Italy left little room to expand in Europe. Germany and Italy both needed raw materials to “catch up” with Britain and France so they looked to Africa. The Scramble for Africa  The scramble started in 1870.  Although some coastal land had previously been acquired before 1870, the need for territory quickly accelerated as European countries looked t get deeper into Africa.  Within 20 years, nearly all continents were placed under imperialistic rule. Who was Involved?  Great Britain  France  Germany  Italy  Portugal  Belgium  Spain (kind) Violent Affairs  Violence broke out multiple times when European nations looked to claim the same territory.  Germ Chancellor. Otto van Bismarck. Attempted to avert the possibility of violence against the European powers.  In 1884, Bismarck organized a conference in Berlin for the European nations. The Berlin Conference (1884-85)  The conference looked to set ground rules for future annexation of African territory by European Nations.  Annexation is the forcible acquisition and assertion of legal title over one state’s territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory.  From a distant perspective, it looked like it would reduce tensions among European nations and avert war.  At the heart of the meeting, these European countries negotiated their claims to African territory, made it official and then mapped their regions.  Furthermore, the leaders agreed to allow free trade among imperialized territory and some homework for negotiating future European claims in Africa was established. Further Path  After the conference, european powers continued to expand their claims in Africa so that by 1900. 90% of the African territory had been claimed. A Turn towards Colonization?  Upon the imperialization of African territory, European nations and little interest in African land unless it produced economic wealth.  Therefore, European governments put little effort and expertise into these imperialized regions.  In most cases, this emat a form of indirect rule. Thus, governing the natin without sufficient settlement and government from within the mother country. Some Exceptions  There were some exemptions through in Africa as colonization was a necessary for some regions i n Africa.  Some regions where diamonds and gold were present. Government looked to protectorate the regions and establish rule and settlement in the regions.  Protectorates: A state controlled and protected by another state for defense against aggression and other law violations. Would  Some examples include South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Congo. Conclusion  Although it may appear that the Berlin Conference averted war amid the African Scramble, imperialism eventually brought the world into worldwide conflict.  With the continued desire to create an empire by European nations. World War 1 would break out which can be linked to this quest at imperialism.
noteNote
studied byStudied by 11 people
4.5(2)
Radioactivity
noteNote
studied byStudied by 68 people
5.0(1)
Chapter Fourteen: Schizophrenia and Related Disorders
noteNote
studied byStudied by 12 people
5.0(1)

Cell - The Unit of Life

What is a cell?

  • The cell is the fundamental structural and functional unit of all living beings.
    • It is the smallest part of the body of an organism that is capable of independent existence and of performing the essential functions of life.
    • Every organ in our body—the skin, the brain, the muscle or even the bone—is composed of hundreds of thousands of such cells.
    • Similarly, every part of a plant—the leaf, the flower, the root, and even the wood—is composed of an exceedingly large number of cells.
  • Every cell has its own life.
    • Old and weak cells in the body continually die and are replaced by new cells.
    • All organisms including ourselves,  start life as a single cell called the egg.
  • Cells are so small (microscopic) that they cannot be seen with the naked eye.
    • It was, therefore, natural that their existence could not be detected by man until he invented magnifying aids in the form of microscopes.

The Invention of the Microscope and the Discovery of the Cell:

  • The first microscope was constructed by Dutch scientist Antony van Leeuwenhoek (1632-1723).
    • He was an ordinary public official who ground lenses and made microscopic observations as a hobby.
    • He is said to have constructed 400 microscopes. Basically, all his microscopes consisted of a single biconvex lens and were called simple microscopes.
  • Some of these microscopes had considerable magnifying power of up to 200 times.
    • In this microscope, the eye was applied close to the lens on one side and the object was mounted on the needle-like screw point on the opposite side of the lens.
  • Robert Hooke (1635-1703), an English scientist, developed a microscope by using two lenses for achieving greater magnification.
    • Such microscopes were later known as compound microscopes.
    • In Hooke’s microscope, the object to be seen was placed on the stage below and light from an oil flame was thrown on it by means of a concave mirror.
    • Hooke examined a thin slice of cork under his microscope and observed that it was made of tiny “box-like” compartments piled up together.
    • This reminded him of the rooms, or cells, of monks in a monastery and so he said that the cork was made up of cells.
    • The cells which Hooke saw were all dead cells and they had only the empty “boxes” or the walls.
  • The invention of the electron microscope added further to the unknown facts about cells.
    • It can give a magnification of over 200,000 times as against the ordinary compound microscope which magnifies an object up to a maximum of about 2,000 times.
  • The ordinary compound microscope uses light which is bent by glass lenses to magnify the image while the electron microscope uses beams of electrons that are bent by magnets.
    • In 1838, Matthias Schleiden, a German Botanist, announced that every plant is made up of a large number of cells.
    • He added that each of these cells performed various life processes.
    • A year later, Theodor Schwann, a German zoologist, made similar discoveries in animals.
    • He declared that all animals and plants are composed of cells, which serve as the units of structure and function.
    • This, in short, is called the Cell Theory, having been proposed by Schwann and Schleiden in the year 1539.
    • Rudolf Virchow in l858 made an addition to the cell theory by saying that all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

What does the Cell Theory mean?

  • Take two examples, a plant such as a mango and an animal such as a frog.
    • Structural Unit - If we take any part of the body of a frog or any part of a  mango plant and examine it under a microscope, it will show a cellular structure.
    • Functional Unit - Any function in the body of the frog or in the mango plant is due to the activity in its cells.
    • For example, the movement of the frog is due to the contractions of muscle cells, food is digested by the enzymes that the cells of the gut secrete, digested food is absorbed by the cells, and absorbed food is used up in cells for various metabolic activities.
    • In a mango plant, photosynthesis occurs in the cells of leaves, the root cells absorb water from the soil, and so on.
    • Cells die and are replaced - The body of the frog, or of the mango tree, is composed of millions and millions of cells.
    • Many of these cells continuously die and are replaced by new ones which are formed by the division of younger cells.
    • The formation of cells from pre-existing cells is a never-ending chain.
    • All life starts as a single cell - The life of the frog and the life of the mango tree started as an egg and as a seed respectively.
    • The egg was a single cell produced by the cells of the ovary of the mother frog.
    • The mango seed had an embryo that also started as a single cell in the ovary of the flowers of the parent mango tree.

Cells: How Numerous?

  • Larger an organism, the greater the number of cells in its body.
    • Single-celled: Many small plants and animals are made up of just one single cell.
    • Examples: Bacteria, yeast, amoeba.
    • Few-celled: Some very small plants and animals are made up of relatively few cells—just a few hundred or a few thousand cells.
    • Examples: Spirogyra, Volvox
    • Multi-celled: Most plants and animals we see around us including ourselves, are made up of millions and billions of cells.
    • Examples: Human beings, Mango
      • An average-sized adult human constitutes approximately:
      • 1000 million cells in the whole body.
      • 10,000 million nerve cells in the brain cortex.
      • 5-6 million red blood cells and 7 thousand white blood cells per cubic millimeter of blood.

Cells: How Small?

  • Cells are very small and are seen only with a microscope.
    • The smallest cells are the bacteria (0.3-5.0 micrometers), red blood cells (about 7 micrometers) in the human body, etc.
    • The longest cells are the nerve cells.
    • Imagine a nerve cell extending from your fingertip up to the spinal cord inside your backbone.
    • The largest cells are the birds’ eggs (actually the central yellow sphere).
    • The Ostrich egg (before development begins in it) is the largest single cell in the living world today.
    • The white (albumen) of the egg and the egg-shell are extra parts added to the actual egg as it passes down the reproductive tract.
  • The smallness of Cells: A Greater Efficiency.
    • Cells generally remain small in size and this is so for these main reasons:
    • Different regions of a cell can communicate with each other rapidly for the cell to function effectively.
    • Cells have a large surface area/volume ratio for greater diffusion of substances in and out of the cell.
      • To understand the second advantage of the surface area/volume ratio imagine a cube with each of its sides measuring 2 mm.
      • The total surface area of this cube will be 2 mm x 2 mm x 6 (surfaces) = 24 sq. mm.
      • Suppose we cut this cube into 8 equal smaller cubes by reducing each side by half its length, then the total surface area of these 8 smaller cubes will be l mm x 1 mm x 6 (surfaces) x 8 pieces = 48 sq. mm, which is double that of the original larger cube.
      • The total volume in both cases still remains the same.

Cell Shapes: To suit Functional Requirements

  • Cells vary greatly in shape.
    • These may be disc-like, polygonal, rectangular, cuboid, thread-like, branched, or even irregular.
    • These shapes of cells are often related to the different functions they perform.
    • Human red blood cells are circular and biconcave, to pass through narrow capillaries and transport oxygen.
    • White blood cells are amoeboid (amoeba-like movement, with pseudopodia) that can squeeze out through capillary walls.
    • Nerve cells are long to conduct “impulses” from distant parts of the body to the brain and vice-versa.
    • Muscle cells are long and contractile to pull or squeeze the parts.
    • Guard cells of the stomatal pore in the leaves are bean-shaped to open and close the pore.

Structure of a Cell:

  • Various kinds of cells show special differences, yet they all show some basic structural plan which may be expressed in the term  “generalized cell”.
    • A generalized cell consists of three essential parts cell membrane (plasma membrane), nucleus, and cytoplasm.
  • Cell organelles (the ‘little organs”): Most parts of a cell have a definite shape, a definite structure, and a definite function.
    • Such parts are called organelles.
    • The organelles have the same status in a cell as the organs have in the entire body of an animal or a plant performing specific functions.
    • Cell organelles are living parts.

Cell Membrane and Cell Wall:

  • Each cell is surrounded by a cell membrane or plasma membrane.
    • The cell membrane has fine pores through which substances may enter or leave the cell.
    • The permeability of the cell membrane is selective, i.e. it allows only certain substances to pass through while it prevents others.
    • Plant cells have a cell wall surrounding the cell membrane.
    • The cell wall is made of cellulose, a non-living substance.
    • The cell wall gives shape and a certain degree of rigidity to the cell without interfering with the functions of the cell membrane.
    • The cell wall is freely permeable allowing the substances in the solution to enter and leave the cell without hindrance.

Cytoplasm:

  • The cytoplasm is a semi-liquid substance.
    • It occupies most parts of the cell within the cell membrane.
    • Under a compound microscope, it appears to be colorless, partly transparent, and somewhat watery.
    • Many chemical reactions take place in the cytoplasm.
    • Living cytoplasm is always in a state of some movement.
  • The following are the cell organelles embedded in the cytoplasm.

Endoplasmic Reticulum:

  • The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is so fine in the structure that its existence is revealed only through an electron microscope.

    • It is an irregular network of double membranes distributed over the entire cytoplasm in a cell.

    • At its outer end, the endoplasmic reticulum is connected to the cell membrane.

    • At its inner end, it is connected to the nuclear membrane. It appears rough when the particle-like ribosomes are attached to it and appears smooth without

      them.

    • It forms the supporting framework of the cell and also serves as a pathway for the distribution of the materials from one part of the cell to the other.

Ribosomes: Sites of Protein Synthesis

  • The ribosomes are numerous small granules either scattered freely in the cytoplasm or attached to the membranes of the endoplasmic reticulum.
  • These are the ‘factories’ for the synthesis of proteins.

Mitochondrion: The cell’s energy producers

  • The mitochondria *(*mitochondrion) are spherical, rod-shaped, or thread-like {mitos: thread) bodies.
    • These are minute double-walled bags with their inner walls produced into finger-like processes projecting inwards (called cristae).
    • Mitochondria are the sites where cellular respiration occurs to release energy.
    • This energy is stored in the form of an energy-rich compound ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and is used in various metabolic functions of the cell, and in turn, of the body.
    • Some people call the mitochondria “powerhouses of the cell”.

Golgi apparatus — The delivery system of the cell

  • The Golgi apparatus occurs in the form of granules, filaments, or rods which are supposed to be originated from the endoplasmic reticulum.
  • These are very small vesicles of different shapes and are generally located near the nucleus.
  • The Golgi complex consists of many small groups of hollow tubular structures with membranous walls and is associated with some minute vesicles and vacuoles.
  • It is concerned with the secretions of the cell including enzymes, hormones, etc.

Lysosomes — The Intercellular Digestive Sites

  • Lysosomes are small vesicles of different shapes containing some digestive enzymes.
    • Their enzymes destroy and digest foreign substances around them.
    • They digest the stored food during starvation of the cell.
  • Many damaged cells are rapidly destroyed or dissolved by their own lysosomes and hence these are also called “suicide bags”.

Centrosome and centrioles:

  • A centrosome is found only in an animal cell.
    • It is a clear area of cytoplasm close to the nucleus, (from which spindle fibers develop during cell division both in mitosis and meiosis).
    • The centrosome contains two centrioles which are short bundles of microfilaments arranged at right angles to each other (that is why they always appear in this shape in the microscopic view of the cell). [There are no centrosomes and centrioles in plant cells].

Plastids:

  • Plastids are found only in plant cells.
  • These are special organelles in different shapes—oval, spherical and disc-shaped.
  • Depending upon the color they impart plastids are classified as leucoplasts, chromoplasts, and chloroplasts.
  • Leucoplasts: (leuco: white) are colorless plastids.
    • They have no pigment.
    • They store starch.
    • The cells of potatoes have lots of leucoplasts in them.
  • Chromoplasts: (chromo: color)
    • These are variously colored plastids—yellow, orange, and red.
    • They are mostly present in the petals of flowers and in fruits, and the coloring substances (pigments) associated with them are xanthophyll (yellow) and carotene (orange-red).
    • Some coloring pigments such as blue, violet, and purple are not associated with plastids; instead, they remain dissolved in the cell sap and give that color to the plant structure.
    • Such pigments are called anthocyanins.
  • Chloroplasts: (chloro green).
    • These are green-colored plastids.
    • They have a green-colored pigment called chlorophyll.
    • Chloroplasts are abundant in parts exposed to light, e.g. leaves.
    • They also have other pigments such as orange and yellow, but these pigments are masked by large quantities of chlorophyll.
    • Their function is to trap solar energy and absorb carbon dioxide for the manufacture of starch and sugar during photosynthesis.
    • Chloroplasts contain DNA and have the capacity to divide.

Cell Inclusions:

  • Granules: There are many small particles in the cytoplasm, these particles are believed to contain food materials, such as starch, glycogen and fats.
  • Vacuoles: These are certain clear spaces in the cytoplasm.
    • They are filled with water and various substances in solution.
    • In plant cells the vacuoles are usually quite large and the liquid which they contain is called cell-sap.
    • An animal cell does not have such prominent vacuoles, and the vacuoles are fewer in number.

Nucleus;

  • Nucleus is a small spherical mass located somewhat in the center of the cytoplasm.
    • It has a delicate nuclear membrane which is filled with a relatively dense nucleoplasm.
    • In the nucleoplasm there are certain threadlike structures called chromatin fibers. During cell division the chromatin fibers become thick and ribbon-like.
      • These fibers are then called chromosomes.
    • Cells in which nuclear membrane is absent are called Prokaryotic cells (pro-primitive; karyon-nucleus).
    • They have nuclear material called chromatic fibers which occur freely in the cytoplasm.
      • Example: bacteria.
    • Cells in which double nuclear membrane is present are called Eukaryotic cells (eu: true; karyon : nucleus).
    • Example: all organism other than bacteria.
  • Each nucleus also has, at least, one nucleolus in it.
    • Some cells may have more than one nucleolus.
    • The number of nucleoli in a cell is fixed.
    • The nucleolus participates in protein synthesis.
  • The number of chromosomes is definite in each species.
    • Every human body cell has 46 (23 pairs) chromosomes.
  • Chromosome numbers of some other common animals and plants are as follows:
    • Ascaris (round worm)                             2
    • Garden pea                                            14
    • Onion                                                    16
    • Maize                                                    20
  • The chromosomes carry the genetic characters from the parents to the offspring through the union of the egg of the female and the sperm of the male.
    • Chromosomes are made of chromatin, which is composed of hereditary units called genes.
    • Genes are made of a complex chemical substance DNA  (deoxyribonucleic acid).
    • Genes and not the number of chromosomes determine the characteristics of a species.
  • Lion, tiger and the house cat all have 38 chromosomes but they look different due to their different genes located on these chromosomes.

Protoplasm:

  • Biologists have been using the term “protoplasm” for a long time.
  • By this they mean the living substances in an organism.
  • This living substance or the protoplasm is contained in the cells.
  • The protoplasm has been described as a translucent fluid somewhat colorless, greyish or brownish.
  • The chemical composition of protoplasm is very complex.
  • It varies a little from one cell to another, although the common elements included in the composition of protoplasm, such as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, iron and phosphorus, are the same in all cells.
  • These elements are in the form of specific compounds such as water, proteins, carbohydrates, fats and mineral salts.
  • It is also true to say that it is impossible to make an accurate chemical analysis of protoplasm because it ceases to be protoplasm as soon as it is removed.

Some Examples of Cellular Activity:

  • All organisms, grow due to the growth in size and increase in the number of cells. Such growth is the production of more body substance and cell substance.

  • Repair of an injury or regeneration of a lost part (as the tail of a lizard) is due to cell divisions.

  • Movement of the body is due to contractility of the cells or the cellular parts.

    • For example: Animals walk, run, jump, swim or fly with the help of muscles (contractile cells) which move the bones (formed of cells and cell secretions).
    • Even the flow of blood in blood vessels and the passage of food in the gut are the result of muscle cell contractions.
    • Feathers which help the birds to fly are also the products of cell.
    • The drooping of leaves of the sensitive plant on touching and their subsequent recovery to stand out is due to the activity of the cells at the base of the leaves.
    • In plants, the bending movements of roots towards water or gravity, or movements of stems towards light or away from gravity are due to the activities of cells (unequal growth in the cells).
    • Closing of stomata of leaves at night and the opening of petals in a flower are all due to changes in the water content of their cells.
  • Feeding and nutrition has many steps and each step is the result of cellular activities.

    • Sensory cells on the tongue taste the food and muscle cells of the jaws and of the tongue help in chewing and swallowing.
    • The cells of the digestive glands secrete enzymes to digest food.
    • The cells of the inner mining of the intestines absorb digested food.
    • Extra food is stored as fat in fat cells and as glycogen in liver cells.
  • Circulation of blood and movement of other fluids in the body are through forces set up by contraction of muscle cells of the heart or other parts.

  • Respiratory gases are transported from the lungs to other parts of the body by blood cells.

  • The body protects itself from disease germs through certain cells (W.B.C.) which devour the germs or which give out antibodies and antitoxins to kill them or to neutralize their effects.

  • We see, hear. smell, taste or feel the sensation of touch, pain, heat, cold, etc. through sensory cells.

    • The brain orders muscles to contract or a gland to secrete through its cells (response) The memory and the capacity to solve problems are also due to the activity of the cells.
  • We maintain our body heat (thermo-regulation) by cellular activity and we cool it when hot by sweating from gland cells in the skin.

  • All organisms produce their young ones (eggs or babies in animals, or the seeds in plants) through the activity of cells (eggs and sperms).

  • In plants, the absorption of’ water and nutrients is through root cells. The stem cells conduct the food and water to different parts of the plant.

  • Light is trapped by the leaf cells containing chloroplasts to produce food.

  • Flowers attract insects by thief color contained in the petal cells, or by nectar secreted by the cells.

  • The mango seed produces a mango plant and a hen’s egg produces a hen and similarly, the transmission of parental features to their young ones inheritance) is also dependent on what the germ cells (egg and sperm) early with them.

    Bacterial Cell

    Animal and Plant Cell

    Parts of Cell and its Functions

Note
5.0(3)
Explore Top Notes
Chapter 24: Forensic DNA Databases: Tools for Crime Investigation
noteNote
studied byStudied by 10 people
5.0(1)
Introducing Rhetoric: Using the “Available Means”
noteNote
studied byStudied by 58 people
5.0(1)
Chapter 5: Sensation and Perception
noteNote
studied byStudied by 55 people
5.0(1)
Imperialism Rise in Nationalism • During the French and Industrial Revolution, nationalism continued to inspire nations to increase their political and economic power. • Nationalism became the ideal force in the political, economic, and cultural life in the world, becoming the first universal ideology-organizing all people into a nation state. Nationalism Defined • The strong belief that the interest of a particular nation-state is of primary importance. o Nation-State – a state where the vast majority shares the same culture and is conscious of it. It is an ideal in which cultural boundaries match up with political ones. • As an ideology, it is based on the idea that the individual’s loyalty and devotion to the nation-state surpass other individual/group interests. • Exalting one nation’s belief above all others and placing primary emphasis on promotion of its culture and interests, excluding the interests of others. Changing the World through a Nationalistic Vision • The French Revolution significantly changed the political world and how countries govern. • The Industrial Revolution significantly changed the economic world. • The Age of Imperialism (1870-1914) dramatically changed the political, economic, and social world. What is Imperialism? • Imperialism- The policy of extending the rule of authority of an empire or nation over foreign countries, or of acquiring and holding colonies and dependencies. Power and influence are done through diplomacy or military force. Reasons for Imperialism • There are 5 main motives for empires to seek to expand their rule over other countries or territories: 1. Exploratory • Imperial nations wanted to explore territory unknown to them. • The main purpose for this exploration of new lands was for resource acquisition, medical or scientific research. o Charles Darwin • Other reasons: o Cartography (map making) o Adventure 2. Ethnocentric • Europeans acted on the concept of ethnocentrism o Ethnocentrism- the belief that one race or nation is superior to others. • Ethnocentrism developed out of Charles Darwin’s “survival of the fittest” theory. Philosophers used the theory to explain why there were superior races and inferior races. o This became known as Social Darwinism. • Most imperial nations believed that their cultural values or beliefs were superior to other nations or groups. • Believed imperial conquest would bring successful culture to inferior people. 3. Religious • Imperial expansion promoted a religious movement of people setting out to convert new members of conquered territories. • With the belief that Christianity was superior, missionaries believed it was their duty to spread Christianity to the world. • Christian missionaries established churches, and in doing so, they spread Western culture values as well. • Typically, missionaries spread the imperial nation's language through education and religious interactions. 4. Political • Patriotism and Nationalism helped spur our imperial growth, thus creating competition against other supremacies. • It was a matter of national pride, respect, and security. • Furthermore, European rivalry spurred nations for imperial conquest. Since land equaled power, the more land a country could acquire the more prestige they could wield across the globe. • Empires wanted strategic territory to ensure access for their navies and armies around the world. • The empire believed they must expand, thus they needed to be defended. 5. Economic • With the Industrial Revolution taking place during the same time, governments and private companies contributed to find ways to maximize profits. • Imperialized countries provided European factories and markets with natural resources (old and new) to manufacture products. • Trading posts were strategically placed around imperialized countries to maximize and increase profits. o Such places as the Suez Canal in Egypt which was controlled by the British provided strategic choke hold over many European powers. o Imperial powers competed over the best potential locations for resources, markets, and trade. History of Imperialism • Ancient Imperialism 600 BCE-500 CE o Roman Empire, Ancient China, Greek Empire, Persian Empire, Babylonian Empire. • Middle Age Imperialism (Age of Colonialism-1400-1800s) o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Netherlands (Dutch), Russia. • Age of Imperialism 1870-1914 o Great Britain, Spain, Portugal, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy, Japan, United States, Ottoman Empire, Russia. • Current Imperialism...? o U.S. Military intervention (i.e. Middle East) o Russia’s Invasion of Ukraine. Imperialism Colonialism • Refers to political or economic control, either legally or illegally. • Refers to where one nation assumes control over the other. • Creating an empire, expanding into neighboring regions and expanding the dominance far outside its borders. • Where a country conquers and rules over other regions for exploiting resources from the conquered country for the conqueror's benefit. • Foreign government controls/governs a territory without significant settlement. • Foreign government controls/governs the territory from within the land being colonized. • Little to no new settlement established on fresh territory. • Movement to settle to fresh territory. Age of Colonialism WHEN? • Started around the late 1400s and ended around the late 1700s/early 1800s. WHY? • Primary Reason: European countries, wished to find a direct trade route to Asia (China & India) and the East Indies. o Quicker and relatively more effective than land routes over Asia. • Secondary Reason: Empire expansion (land power) WHO? • Countries involved: Great Britain, France, Spain, the Dutch & Portugal. • Individuals’ knowns as Mercantilists believed that maintaining imperialized territory and colonizing the region could serve as a source of wealth, while personal motives by rulers, explorers, and missionaries could therefore promote their own agenda. o This agenda being “Glory, God and Gold”. Mercantilism • Mercantilism was a popular and main economic system for many European nations during the 16th to 18th centuries. • The main goal was to increase a nation’s wealth by promoting government rule of a nation’s economy for the purpose of enhancing state power at the expense of rival national power. • It was the economic counterpart of political absolutism. Why did mercantilists want colonies? • Mercantilists believed that a country must have an excess of exports over imports. • By colonizing territory, it provided the nation with indispensable wealth of precious raw materials. • Therefore, the claimed territory served as a market and supplier of raw materials for the mother country. Which, in time, provided an excess of exports for the nation and thus created wealth. o Development of Trading Companies to support this economic system. Hudson Bay Company – (1670). Controlled primarily North America. o Dutch East Indie Trading Company (1682) o East Indian Trading Company (1600) o Royal African Trade Company (1672) WHERE? • European nations begun to colonize the America, India and the East Indies to create a direct trade route. • Great Britain was the leading power in India, Australia and North America, South Africa. • Spain colonized central and South America. • French held Louisiana, coastal land of Africa and French Guinea. • The Dutch built an empire in the East Indies. • The Portuguese was able to take control of present-day Brazil and the southern tip of South America and Japan. Age of Colonialism • As countries started to imperialize these regions, eventually the concept of colonization took hold: • This is what makes the Age of Colonialism extremely different! End of Colonialism • By 1800, colonialism became less popular • Why? o Revolutions (Spain, France & American) o The Napoleonic Wars o Struggle for nationalism and democracy. o Exhausted all money and energy to supervise their colonies. Waiting to wake again • Imperialism would stay quiet for close to 50 years before Great Britain and France’s economies revitalized. • The outbreak of the Industrial Revolution only encouraged and revitalized European nations to begin their conquest for new territory and resources. Age of Imperialism THE SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA 1870-1914 Conditions Prior to Imperialism of Africa  European interest in exploiting Africa was minimal.  Their economic interests & profit in Africa primarily came through coastal trade that took place during the 1500-1700s.  The slave trade became the main source of European profit.  Furthermore, disease, political instability, lack of transportation and unpredictable climate all discouraged Europeans from seeking territory. Slave Trade & the Trans-Atlantic Slave Voyages  Forced labor was not uncommon during the 13-17th Centuries. Africans and Europeans had been trading goods and people across the Mediteranea for centuries.  This all changed from 1526 to 1867, as a new system of slavery was introduced that became highly “commercialized, racialized and inherited”  By 1690, the America and West Indies saw approximately 30,000 African people shipped from Africa. A century later, that number grew to 85,000 people per year.  By 1867, approximately 12.5 million people (about twice the population of Arizona) left Africa in a slave ship. What Changed? 1. End of the Slave Trade- Left a need for trade between Europe and Africa. 2. Innovation in technology- The steam engine and iron hulled boats allowed Europe 3. Discovery of new raw materials- Explorers located vast raw materials and resources and this only spurred imperialism with Europe in the wake of the Industrial Revolution. 4. Politics- Unification of Germany and Italy left little room to expand in Europe. Germany and Italy both needed raw materials to “catch up” with Britain and France so they looked to Africa. The Scramble for Africa  The scramble started in 1870.  Although some coastal land had previously been acquired before 1870, the need for territory quickly accelerated as European countries looked t get deeper into Africa.  Within 20 years, nearly all continents were placed under imperialistic rule. Who was Involved?  Great Britain  France  Germany  Italy  Portugal  Belgium  Spain (kind) Violent Affairs  Violence broke out multiple times when European nations looked to claim the same territory.  Germ Chancellor. Otto van Bismarck. Attempted to avert the possibility of violence against the European powers.  In 1884, Bismarck organized a conference in Berlin for the European nations. The Berlin Conference (1884-85)  The conference looked to set ground rules for future annexation of African territory by European Nations.  Annexation is the forcible acquisition and assertion of legal title over one state’s territory by another state, usually following military occupation of the territory.  From a distant perspective, it looked like it would reduce tensions among European nations and avert war.  At the heart of the meeting, these European countries negotiated their claims to African territory, made it official and then mapped their regions.  Furthermore, the leaders agreed to allow free trade among imperialized territory and some homework for negotiating future European claims in Africa was established. Further Path  After the conference, european powers continued to expand their claims in Africa so that by 1900. 90% of the African territory had been claimed. A Turn towards Colonization?  Upon the imperialization of African territory, European nations and little interest in African land unless it produced economic wealth.  Therefore, European governments put little effort and expertise into these imperialized regions.  In most cases, this emat a form of indirect rule. Thus, governing the natin without sufficient settlement and government from within the mother country. Some Exceptions  There were some exemptions through in Africa as colonization was a necessary for some regions i n Africa.  Some regions where diamonds and gold were present. Government looked to protectorate the regions and establish rule and settlement in the regions.  Protectorates: A state controlled and protected by another state for defense against aggression and other law violations. Would  Some examples include South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Congo. Conclusion  Although it may appear that the Berlin Conference averted war amid the African Scramble, imperialism eventually brought the world into worldwide conflict.  With the continued desire to create an empire by European nations. World War 1 would break out which can be linked to this quest at imperialism.
noteNote
studied byStudied by 11 people
4.5(2)
Radioactivity
noteNote
studied byStudied by 68 people
5.0(1)
Chapter Fourteen: Schizophrenia and Related Disorders
noteNote
studied byStudied by 12 people
5.0(1)