behaviorism: a psychological
approach that emphasizes the study of
observable behaviors rather than
internal mental states
2. classical conditioning: a type of
learning in which one learns to link two
more stimuli and anticipate events
3. acquisition: when a previously neutral
stimulus begins triggering a conditioned
response
4. unconditioned stimulus: a stimulus
that naturally and automatically triggers
a response
5. unconditioned response: the
unlearned, naturally occurring response
to the unconditioned stimulus
6. neutral stimulus: a stimulus that gets
a subject’s attention but otherwise does
not produce a measurable response
7. conditioned stimulus: the former
neutral stimulus after it has become
associated with the unconditioned
stimulus and now elicits a conditioned
response
8. conditioned response: the learned
response to a previously neutral
stimulus (but now conditioned) stimulus
9. extinction: the diminishing of a
conditioned response
10. spontaneous recovery: the
reappearance, after a pause, of an
extinguished conditioned response
11. higher-order conditioning: occurs
when a conditioned stimulus is paired
with a new neutral stimulus, leading the
new neutral stimulus to evoke a
conditioned response
12. contingencies: the relationship
between stimuli and responses, and the
consequences that follow those
responses
13. counterconditioning: psychological
technique used to change or replace an
undesirable response to a stimulus with
a more desirable response
14. taste aversion: when an individual
develops a strong dislike or avoidance
of a particular taste (or food) after it has
been paired with an unpleasant or
harmful experience
15. one-trial conditioning: a form of
classical conditioning in which a single
pairing of a neutral stimulus (NS) with
an unconditioned stimulus (US) is
sufficient to establish a conditioned
response (CR)
16. biological preparedness: suggests
that humans and other animals are
inherently predisposed to learn certain
associations and behaviors more easily
than others due to evolutionary factors
17. habituation: a form of learning in which
an organism gradually decreases or
ceases to respond to a repeated
stimulus
5.2 Operant Conditioning
18. operant conditioning: a type of
behavior modification that relies on
learning through consequences
19. reinforcement: stimuli that encourage
the repetition of a behavior
20. punishment: stimuli that discourage
the repetition of a behavior
21. law of effect: behaviors that are
followed by favorable consequences
are more likely to be repeated in the
future, while behaviors that are followed
by unfavorable consequences are less
likely to be repeated
22. primary reinforcement: stimuli that are
inherently satisfying or rewarding
because they directly satisfy basic
biological needs or drives
23. secondary reinforcer: stimuli that
acquire their reinforcing properties
through association with primary
reinforcers or other secondary
reinforcers
24. positive reinforcement: adding a
desirable stimulus to increase the
likelihood of a behavior being repeated
25. negative reinforcement: removing an
aversive stimulus to increase the
likelihood of a behavior being repeated
26. reinforcement discrimination: an
organism learns to respond differently
to two or more stimuli that are similar
but have different consequences
27. reinforcement generalization: where
a response that has been reinforced in
the presence of a specific stimulus also
occurs in the presence of similar stimuli
28. positive punishment: adding an
aversive stimulus to decrease the
likelihood of a behavior being repeated
29. negative punishment: removing a
desirable stimulus to decrease the
likelihood of a behavior being repeated
30. shaping: reinforcing approximations of
a desired behavior
31. instinctive drift: when animals revert
to their innate, instinctual behaviors
instead of performing the trained
operant response
32. superstitious behavior: actions or
behaviors that are performed in a
seemingly random or arbitrary manner
but are mistakenly believed to cause a
desired outcome or prevent an
undesirable one
33. aversive consequences: outcomes or
stimuli that are unpleasant or
undesirable, leading to a decrease in
the likelihood of a behavior being
repeated
34. continuous reinforcement: when a
desired behavior is reinforced each and
every time it is displayed
35. partial reinforcement: when a desired
behavior is reinforced intermittently
36. fixed-interval: a reinforcement
schedule that reinforces a response
only after a specified time has elapsed
37. fixed-ratio: a reinforcement schedule
that reinforces a response only after a
specified number of responses
38. variable-interval: a reinforcement
schedule that reinforces a response at
unpredictable time intervals
39. variable-ratio: a reinforcement
schedule that reinforces a response
after an unpredictable number of
responses
5.3: Social, Cognitive, & Neurological Factors in Learning
40. social learning theory: Bandura’s
theory that emphasizes the role of
observational learning, imitation, and
modeling in the acquisition of new
behaviors
41. vicarious conditioning: the idea that
individuals are influenced by the
consequences experienced by the
models they observe
42. modeling: imitating the behavior of
others
43. insight learning: a form of learning
characterized by sudden and
spontaneous understanding or
realization of a problem or solution,
often occurring without trial-and-error or
repeated practice
44. latent learning: a form of learning that
occurs without obvious reinforcement or
immediate behavioral changes
45. cognitive mapping: the mental
representation or internal map that
individuals create to organize and
navigate their environment