AP GOV UNIT ONE TEST REVIEW
Government Definition
“The institutions and processes through which public policies are made for a society.”
Government is the system or institution through which a society makes and enforces public policies, organizes power among branches and levels, and ensures order, justice, and the protection of individual rights. It operates through legislative, executive, and judicial branches, and includes bureaucratic agencies that carry out laws and services.
Derives its power from the consent of the governed (popular sovereignty).
Is structured to prevent tyranny through separation of powers and checks and balances.
Exists at multiple levels—federal, state, and local—each with distinct responsibilities.
Is influenced by competing theories like elite theory and pluralism, which explain how power is distributed and exercised.
Politics Definition
“The process by which we select our governmental leaders and what policies they pursue.”
Politics is the process by which individuals and groups interact with government to influence public policy, shape laws, and determine how power and resources are distributed in society.
Politics involves linkage institutions such as political parties, interest groups, and the media, which connect people to government and influence policy.
It reflects the values, beliefs, and ideologies of citizens, which drive the formation and implementation of public policy.
Politics is shaped by majoritarian, pluralist, and elite models of democracy, each describing different ways people and groups exert influence.
It is a dynamic process, influenced by cultural factors, social change, and historical events.
Functions of Government
Governments must perform five basic functions:
1. Maintain a national defense
2. Provide public services
3. Preserve order
4. Socialize the young
5. Collect taxes
Making laws
The legislative branch (Congress) creates public policy through statutes that govern the country.
Congress determines national priorities such as defense, health care, trade, and criminal law.
Enforcing laws
The executive branch, led by the president and supported by the federal bureaucracy, enforces laws passed by Congress.
Agencies like the FBI, EPA, and Department of Homeland Security carry out specific enforcement tasks.
Interpreting laws
The judicial branch interprets laws and ensures justice through a system of courts.
The Supreme Court and lower courts resolve disputes and determine the constitutionality of laws.
Maintaining order and stability
Government promotes social order and public safety, balancing individual liberties with collective security.
Examples include law enforcement, emergency response, and national defense.
Providing public services
Government delivers services such as education, transportation, health care, and mail delivery.
These are often administered through bureaucratic agencies.
Protecting rights and liberties
Through the Constitution and the Bill of Rights, government protects freedoms like speech, religion, and due process.
Courts and agencies ensure these rights are upheld.
Managing economic policy
Government regulates commerce, collects taxes, and manages fiscal and monetary policy.
Congress holds the “power of the purse,” and agencies like the IRS and Federal Reserve play key roles.
Types and Frequency of Political Participation
Types of Political Participation
Voting
The most common form of participation.
Includes presidential, congressional, state, and local elections.
Voter turnout is highest in presidential elections and lower in midterm, municipal, and school board elections.
Ballot initiatives and referenda
Citizens can propose laws or contest existing ones through direct votes.
26 states allow some form of ballot initiatives.
Joining interest groups
Citizens participate by aligning with groups that advocate for specific policies.
These groups lobby, testify before Congress, and influence legislation.
Campaigning and donating
Includes volunteering for campaigns, attending rallies, and contributing money to candidates or causes.
Contacting public officials
Writing letters, emails, or calling representatives to express opinions or concerns.
Protesting and demonstrating
Public demonstrations to raise awareness or pressure government action.
Engaging in civic organizations
Participation in community groups, religious organizations, or veterans’ associations that influence public policy.
Frequency of Participation
Presidential elections: Every 4 years; highest voter turnout.
Midterm Elections: Every 2 years; lower turnout than presidential elections.
Local Elections: Vary by state and municipality; typically have the lowest turnout.
Ballot Measures: Occur during general elections or special elections depending on state law.
Factors Influencing Participation
Age, education, income, race, gender, religion, and political efficacy.
Older, wealthier, and more educated individuals tend to participate more frequently.
Linkage Institutions
Structures within society that connect people to the government and allow individuals to express their preferences and influence public policy.
Political parties
Help organize elections, recruit candidates, and present policy platforms.
Serve as a bridge between citizens and elected officials.
Interest groups
Advocate for specific causes or policies
Influence lawmakers through lobbying, campaign contributions, and public campaigns
Mass media
Informs the public about government actions and political issues.
Acts as a watchdog and shapes public opinion.
Elections
Provide a direct way for citizens to choose representatives and voice their policy preferences.
Include primaries, general elections, and referenda.
Democracy
A system of government in which power is vested in the people and exercised by them directly or through elected representatives.
Key Features of Democracy
Popular sovereignty
The idea that the authority of government is created and sustained by the consent of its people.
Political equality
All citizens have equal access to political participation and influence.
Free and fair elections
Citizens choose leaders through regular, competitive elections.
Majority rule with minority rights
Decisions are made by majority vote, but the rights of minorities are protected.
Rule of law
Everyone, including government officials, is subject to the law.
Limited government
Government powers are restricted by a constitution or legal framework.
Models of Democracy
Participatory democracy
Emphasizes broad participation in politics and civil society.
Belief that the more people who participate, the stronger the democracy.
Examples include town hall meetings, referenda, and grassroots movements.
Encourages direct action and civic engagement.
Pluralist democracy
Recognizes group-based activism by non-governmental interests.
Elite democracy
Suggests that a small group of wealthy or influential individuals dominate decision-making.
Traditional Democratic Theory Ideas
Includes several foundational ideas that define how democracy should function in an ideal form. These ideas emphasize broad participation, equality, and responsiveness of government to the people.
“Democracy is a system in which policy represents and responds to the public’s preferences.”
Equality in voting
One person, one vote. All votes should carry equal weight.
Effective participation
Citizens must have adequate and equal opportunities to express their preferences throughout the decision-making process.
Enlightened understanding
A democratic society must be a marketplace of ideas. Free speech and press are essential so citizens can make informed choices.
Citizen control of the agenda
Citizens should have the collective power to influence the political agenda and policy priorities.
Inclusion
The government must include and extend rights to all those subject to its laws. Everyone should have equal access to participation.
These principles are meant to ensure that democracy is responsive, inclusive, and representative of the will of the people.
The Three Types of Contemporary American Democratic Theory
Explains how power and influence operate in a democracy.
Pluralist theory
A theory of government and policies emphasizing that politics is mainly a competition among groups, each one pressing for its own preferred policies.
Groups must bargain and compromise to get policies.
Suggests that organized groups compete to influence public policy.
Power is distributed among many groups (e.g., interest groups, unions, advocacy organizations).
No single group dominates; compromise and negotiation are key.
Reflects the idea that policymaking is a result of group competition.
Elite and class theory
Contends that societies are divided along class lines and that an upper-class elite will rule.
Policies benefit those with money and power.
Argues that a small group of wealthy or influential individuals hold the most power.
Political decisions are often made by elites rather than the general public.
Critics say this undermines true democratic participation.
Examples include major donors, corporate leaders, and political insiders shaping policy.
Hyperpluralism
A theory of government and politics contending that groups are so strong that government is weakened.
Confusing and contradictory policies result from politicians trying to placate every group.
Reasons for the Revolution
A combination of political, economic, and philosophical grievances against British rule.
Lack of representation
Colonists were frustrated by “taxation without representation.”
They had no direct representatives in the British Parliament, yet were subject to laws and taxes imposed by it.
British taxation and trade restrictions
Acts like the Stamp Act, Townshend Acts, and Tea Act imposed taxes and trade controls.
These were seen as unjust and exploitative, especially without colonial input.
Enlightenment ideas
Thinkers like John Locke influenced colonial leaders with ideas about natural rights, social contract, and limited government.
These ideas inspired demands for self-government and liberty.
British military presence and coercion
The presence of British troops in the colonies, especially after the Quartering Act, was viewed as oppressive.
Events like the Boston Massacre intensified anti-British sentiment.
Colonial unity and identity
The formation of groups like the Committees of Correspondence and the Continental Congress helped unify the colonies.
A growing sense of American identity emerged, distinct from British rule.
The Declaration of Independence
Drafted by Thomas Jefferson, it formally outlined grievances against King George III and justified the colonies’ break from Britain.
It emphasized the right to revolt when a government fails to protect natural rights.
Intellectual Basis for the Declaration of Independence
Primarily rooted in Enlightenment philosophy, especially the ideas of John Locke and other thinkers who emphasized natural rights, the social contract, and the right to revolution.
Key Intellectual Foundations
Natural rights
People are born with fundamental rights—life, liberty, and property (Jefferson adapted this to “pursuit of happiness”).
These rights are inalienable and must be protected by government.
Social contract theory
Governments are formed through a contract between the governed and those who govern.
If the government fails to protect the people’s rights, the people have the right to alter or abolish it.
Popular sovereignty
The authority of government comes from the consent of the governed.
This principle justifies the colonies’ decision to break away from Britain.
Limited government
Government power should be restricted to prevent tyranny.
The Declaration criticizes King George III for violating these limits.
Right to Revolution
When a government becomes destructive of the people's rights, it is not only the right but the duty of the people to overthrow it.
Key Enlightenment Thinkers
John Locke
Natural rights and the social contract
Jean-Jacques Rousseau
Popular sovereignty
Montesquieu
Separation of powers, though more relevant to the Constitution
Articles of Confederation
Characteristics:
First U.S. national government framework.
Created a loose confederation of states.
Each state had one vote in Congress.
No executive or judicial branch.
Weaknesses:
No power to tax.
No national military.
No regulation of interstate commerce.
Amendments required unanimous consent.
No enforcement of laws.
Successes:
Managed the Northwest Territory.
Passed the Northwest Ordinance of 1787.
Helped win the Revolutionary War.
⚖ Problems Leading to the Constitutional Convention
Economic instability (e.g., Shays’ Rebellion).
Weak central government.
Trade disputes between states.
Inability to raise revenue or enforce laws.
Purpose of the Convention:
Originally to revise the Articles.
Ultimately led to drafting a new Constitution.
🗳 Plans Proposed at the Convention
New Jersey Plan:
Favored by small states.
Equal representation for each state.
Unicameral legislature.
Virginia Plan:
Favored by large states.
Representation based on population.
Bicameral legislature.
Connecticut (Great) Compromise:
Bicameral Congress:
House: based on population.
Senate: equal representation.
Blended both plans.
🧑🏿🤝🧑🏽 Slavery and the Constitution
Three-Fifths Compromise: counted slaves as 3/5 of a person for representation.
Slave trade could not be banned until 1808.
Fugitive Slave Clause: required return of escaped slaves.
💰 Economic Problems & Solutions
Constitution gave Congress power to:
Tax
Regulate commerce
Coin money
Raise an army
🚫 What States Cannot Do
Coin money.
Enter treaties.
Tax imports/exports without Congress.
Keep troops in peacetime.
📜 Individual Rights in the Constitution
Few rights included initially.
Focus was on structure and limits of government.
Bill of Rights added later to protect liberties.
👥 Tyranny of the Majority
Fear that majority could suppress minority rights.
Constitution includes checks to prevent this.
🧠 Federalist 10
Written by James Madison.
Argues that a large republic prevents factions from dominating.
Pluralism protects minority interests.
How Constitution Limits Tyranny of the Majority:
Separation of powers
Checks and balances
Federalism
Republicanism
🏛 Federalist 51
Also by Madison.
Advocates for checks and balances and separation of powers.
“Ambition must be made to counteract ambition.”
🧩 Separation of Powers
Legislative: makes laws.
Executive: enforces laws.
Judicial: interprets laws.
✅ Ratification Process
Required approval from 9 of 13 states.
Debated by Federalists and Anti-Federalists.
🗣 Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists
Federalists: supported Constitution, strong central government.
Anti-Federalists: feared tyranny, demanded Bill of Rights.
📚 Federalist Papers
Authors: Madison, Hamilton, Jay.
Purpose: defend and explain the Constitution.
Published anonymously as “Publius.”
✍ Amendment Process
Proposal: 2/3 of Congress or national convention.
Ratification: 3/4 of state legislatures or conventions.
Informal Amendment Process:
Judicial interpretation.
Congressional legislation.
Executive actions.
Custom and tradition.
📖 Purpose of the 7 Articles of the Constitution
Legislative Branch
Executive Branch
Judicial Branch
States’ Relations
Amendment Process
Supremacy Clause
Ratification
🌐 Federalism Definition
Division of power between national and state governments.
Unitary Government:
Central government holds all power.
⚖ Supremacy Clause vs. Tenth Amendment
Supremacy Clause: Constitution is the highest law.
Tenth Amendment: powers not given to federal government are reserved to states.
🎯 Purposes of Federalism
Prevent tyranny.
Increase citizen participation.
Allow policy experimentation.
📜 Enumerated vs. Implied Powers
Enumerated: explicitly listed (e.g., coin money).
Implied: derived from Necessary and Proper Clause.
🧪 Necessary and Proper Clause (Elastic Clause)
Allows Congress to pass laws needed to carry out enumerated powers.
🛒 Commerce Clause
Used by Congress to regulate interstate trade.
Basis for expanding federal power.
📈 Reasons for Expansion of National Supremacy
Broad interpretation of Commerce Clause.
Federal mandates and funding.
National crises (e.g., Great Depression, 9/11).
📜 Full Faith and Credit Clause
States must honor laws, records, and court decisions of other states.
🧭 Types of Federalism
Dual Federalism:
Clear division of responsibilities (“layer cake”).
Cooperative Federalism:
Shared responsibilities (“marble cake”).
Fiscal Federalism:
Federal government influences states through grants.
💵 Grants
Categorical Grants:
Specific purposes, strict guidelines.
Block Grants:
Broad purposes, more state flexibility.
📋 Mandates
Funded: federal money provided.
Unfunded: states must comply without financial support.
🏛 Landmark Supreme Court Cases
Marbury v. Madison (1803)
Facts: William Marbury sued for his judicial appointment, which was not delivered.
Result: Supreme Court ruled Marbury had a right to the commission, but the Court couldn’t enforce it.
Reasoning: Declared part of the Judiciary Act unconstitutional.
Implication: Established judicial review—the power of the Court to declare laws unconstitutional.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) 🔍 In Depth
Facts: Maryland tried to tax the national bank; McCulloch refused to pay.
Result: Supreme Court ruled in favor of McCulloch.
Reasoning:
Congress has implied powers via the Necessary and Proper Clause.
States cannot tax federal institutions due to the Supremacy Clause.
Implication: Strengthened federal power and validated the use of implied powers.
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824)
Facts: NY granted a steamboat monopoly; Gibbons had a federal license.
Result: Supreme Court sided with Gibbons.
Reasoning: Only Congress can regulate interstate commerce.
Implication: Expanded federal power over economic activity.
U.S. v. Lopez (1995) 🔍 In Depth
Facts: Lopez brought a gun to school; charged under federal law.
Result: Supreme Court ruled the law unconstitutional.
Reasoning: Possession of a gun in a school zone is not economic activity.
Implication: Limited Congress’s use of the Commerce Clause; returned power to states.
Printz v. United States (1997)
Facts: Federal law required local officials to conduct background checks.
Result: Supreme Court ruled against the federal mandate.
Reasoning: Violated the principle of dual sovereignty.
Implication: Reinforced limits on federal power over state officials.
National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius (2012)
Facts: Challenged the constitutionality of the Affordable Care Act (ACA).
Result: Court upheld the ACA’s individual mandate as a tax, not under the Commerce Clause.
Implication: Limited Commerce Clause but expanded Congress’s taxing power.
📜 Foundational Documents
Federalist 10
Author: James Madison
Purpose: Defend the Constitution; argue for a large republic.
Key Idea: A large republic controls factions better than a small one.
Implication: Supports pluralism and representative democracy.
Brutus 1
Author: Anti-Federalist (likely Robert Yates)
Purpose: Oppose the Constitution; warn against centralized power.
Key Idea: A large republic would lead to tyranny and loss of liberty.
Implication: Advocated for strong state governments and a Bill of Rights.
Declaration of Independence
Author: Thomas Jefferson
Purpose: Justify separation from Britain.
Key Ideas:
Natural rights: life, liberty, pursuit of happiness.
Social contract: government must protect rights.
Right to revolution: if government fails, people can overthrow it.
Articles of Confederation
Purpose: First U.S. government framework.
Key Features:
Weak central government.
No power to tax or regulate commerce.
Implication: Led to Constitutional Convention due to inefficiency.
U.S. Constitution
Purpose: Replace Articles; create stronger federal government.
Key Features:
Separation of powers, checks and balances, federalism.
Enumerated and implied powers.
Amendment process.
Implication: Foundation of U.S. government structure.
Federalist 51
Author: James Madison
Purpose: Explain how the Constitution prevents tyranny.
Key Ideas:
Checks and balances
Separation of powers
“Ambition must be made to counteract ambition.”