1. The collision of cultures in the 16th century

The Collision of Cultures in the 16th Century

Approaches to American History

• Nationalist Historians: Conquest Model

  • Examples: George Bancroft, Alfred Kroeber, Samuel Eliot Morrison

• The Indian Voice: Holocaust Model

• Revisionist Historians: Encounters Model

American Settlement

• Traditional Theory: Nomads crossed the Bering Strait land bridge 12-15k years ago.

• Recent Discoveries: Suggest settlement occurred much earlier.

North American Natives

• Earliest Arrivals: Known as the Clovis peoples.

  • 1929 Evidence: Discovered by Ridgely Whiteman.

  • Further Discoveries: 80+ large Paleo-Indian sites found in U.S., Mexico, and Canada.

  • Climate Change: Global warming created diverse new environments.

  • Agriculture: By 5000 B.C., natives in Mexico grew "The Three Sisters" (corn, beans, and squash).

Native Settlements

• 1500 B.C.: First farming towns appeared in Mexico, fostering community and culture.

The Mayans

• Origin: Came from ancient Yucatan city of Mayapan.

• Classic Mayan Era: AD 250-900 with 40+ cities.

• Collapse: Mayan civilization collapsed by 900 AD.

Incan Empire

• Emergence: 12th century with a population of 12 million speaking 20 languages.

• Territory: Stretched 2500 miles along Andes & western South America.

• Leadership: Known for strong militaristic leaders.

• Decline: Disease and Spanish invaders led to its demise.

Mexica/Aztecs

• Emergence: Around 1248 AD, a dominant force in central Mexico.

• Capital: Tenochtitlan was the largest city in the western hemisphere.

• Empire Scale: On the eve of Spanish arrival, the Aztec Empire had 371 cities and 38 provinces.

North American Civilizations

• Southwest: Anasazi (Ancient Ones).

• Northwest Pacific Coast: Densely populated and had a hierarchical structure.

• Plains: Tribes included Arapaho, Blackfeet, Cheyenne, Comanche, Crow, Apache, and Sioux, primarily nomadic.

Adena-Hopewell Culture

• Period: Dominated the Midwest from 800 B.C. to AD 600.

• Cultural Practices: Engaged in elaborate burial rituals.

• Mississippian Culture: Dominated by 800 AD, known for mound building and corn growing.

• Cahokia: Largest settlement with a population of 15k and 120 mounds.

• Eastern Woodlands Peoples: Included Algonquian, Iroquoian, and Muskogean tribes.

The Black Death

• Outbreak Timeline: Between 1347 and 1351, plague spread via marine routes, leading to high mortality across European cities.

• Impact: Within five years, 20 million killed, accounting for 1/3 of the population.

• Survivor Experience: Chroniclers described mass death, burial practices, and societal fear during the pandemic.

Economic Change

• Social Structure: People became less tied to rigid social systems.

• Government Structure: Rise of stronger central governments led to nation-states.

Renaissance

• Definition: The "Rebirth" was an intellectual revolution characterized by renewed interest in learning, literature, art, and culture.

• Origin: Began in the independent republic of Florence, Italy.

• Intellectual Pursuits: Wealthy intellectuals studied ancient Greek and Roman texts/ruins.

Humanism

• Encouragement of Curiosity: People urged to question traditional thinking.

• Focus of Study: Laws of nature and the physical world, with contributors like Leonardo da Vinci and Galileo.

• Printing Press: Johannes Gutenberg's invention played a crucial role in disseminating Renaissance ideas.

Age of Exploration

• Technological Advancements: Portugal’s use of caravels spearheaded ocean exploration.

• Spanish Expansionism: King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain were avid Christian expansionists.

Christopher Columbus

• Birth: Born in Genoa in 1451, trained in math, astronomy, cartography, and navigation in Lisbon.

• Vision: Believed a westward route to Asia existed; gained support from the Spanish monarchy.

Columbus Sets Sail

• First Voyage: Set sail in August 1492, reaching the Bahamas by October.

• Term for Indigenous People: Referred to islanders as "Indios."

• Subsequent Voyages: Three more trips undertaken in 1493, 1498, and 1502, claiming each time to have reached Asia.

Treaty of Tordesillas

• Division of Territory: Pope Alexander VI divided the New World and Africa between Spain and Portugal.

• Discovery: Amerigo Vespucci reached Brazil in 1499, declaring it a new continent.

Reformation

• Martin Luther's Influence: In 1517, Luther published his "95 Theses," arguing salvation through belief rather than purchase.

• Impact on Society: Encouraged individual Bible reading and inspired political reform demands by 1521.

Impact of Reformation

• Spread: Reformation ideas reached neighboring countries.

• Key Figures: John Calvin in Switzerland preached predestination.

• Catholic Response: The Roman Catholic Church sought to improve its image via the Council of Trent (1545-1563).

• Religious Settlement: Treaty of Augsburg (1555) settled religious strife in the Holy Roman Empire.

Spanish Empire

• Golden Age: Spain's "Siglo de Oro" flourished in the 16th and 17th centuries.

• Colonial Ventures: Early colonies established on Hispaniola; Ponce De Leon conquered Puerto Rico (1508) and Diego Velazquez conquered Cuba (1511-14).

• First Continental Settlement: Darien, in Panama.

Conflict with Natives

• Factors for Conquest: Tribal disunity and diseases aided Spanish conquest.

• Population Impact: Historians estimate 95% of the native population died from diseases like smallpox, compounded by Spanish technological superiority.

Hernan Cortes

• Expedition: On February 18, 1519, Cortes sailed to Mexico, establishing a settlement at Veracruz.

• Encounter with Aztecs: Montezuma welcomed him in Tenochtitlan, but tensions led to a massive battle in Spring 1520.

• Outcome: By 1523, the centuries-old Mexica Empire was in ruins.

Spanish Impact

• Conquest of Incas: Francisco Pizarro subdued the Incan Empire in 1531.

• Sociopolitical Control: Spanish utilized the encomienda system to control native populations.

• Dramatic Decline: New Spain's population dropped from 50 million to about 4 million by the 17th century due to conquest and disease.

Columbian Exchange

• Biological Transfers: Movement of social and biological elements from the Old World to the New World.

  • New World to Europe: Tobacco, potatoes, and turkeys.

  • Europe to New World: Wheat, measles, and horses.

Spanish Empire Expansion

• Central Mexico: The empire was centered around Mexico with significant settlements established.

• Outpost in Florida: St. Augustine established in 1565.

• Expansion: Settlements created in New Mexico, Texas, and California, with New Mexico declared a royal province in 1608.

  • Pueblo Revolt: In 1680, Pueblo Revolt negatively impacted Spanish missionary activity in New Mexico.

French & Dutch Exploration

• Exploration Initiatives: 1523, King Francis I of France instructed Giovanni de Verrazano to explore a route to the Pacific Ocean. The first French colonization attempt was made by Jacques Cartier in 1534.

The Enterprise of England

• Spanish Armada: Comprised of 132 warships, 8,000 sailors, and 18,000 soldiers.

• Battle Outcome: Smaller English ships effectively broke Spanish naval formations; losses for Spain included half of their ships and 15,000 men.

English Colonization

• Initial Landings: 1583 Sir Humphrey Gilbert landed in Newfoundland; 1584 Sir Walter Raleigh established a colony on Roanoke Island, named Virginia.

• Mystery of Roanoke: By 1590, John White returned to find the colony vanished.

• End of the Century: No permanent English settlements established in the New World by 1603.

New Spain Legacy

• Cultural Imposition: Catholicism was imposed on the indigenous populations.

• Exploitation: Natives exploited in the search for gold and silver, leading to considerable political instability.

• Mining Achievements: Between 1545 and 1660, Natives and African slaves mined 7 million pounds of silver, double what existed in Europe in 1492.