Catabolism - Breaking down large molecules into smaller ones. Energy - The capacity to do work. Free Energy (ΔG) - Energy available to do work in a system. Exergonic Reaction - A reaction that releases energy (negative ΔG). Endergonic Reaction - A reaction that absorbs energy (positive ΔG). ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) - The main energy carrier in cells. ADP (Adenosine Diphosphate) - ATP after losing one phosphate group. Inorganic Phosphate (P) - A phosphate group released during ATP hydrolysis. ATP Cycle - The continual process of ATP hydrolysis and synthesis. Phosphorylation - The transfer of a phosphate group to a molecule. Activation Energy - The energy required to initiate a chemical reaction. Enzymes - Mostly proteins that speed up reactions. Cofactors - Ions like Cu, Zn, Fe that help enzymes function. Coenzymes - Molecules like FAD, ADP, riboflavin, folic acid that assist enzymes. Competitive Inhibition - Inhibitor competes with the substrate at the active site. Redox Reactions - Coupled processes that drive many cellular reactions. Enzyme - A protein that accelerates chemical reactions. Ribozyme - An RNA molecule with catalytic activity. Cofactor - An ion or molecule required for enzyme activity. Coenzyme - An organic molecule that assists enzyme function. Apoenzyme - The protein part of an enzyme without its cofactor. Holoenzyme - The complete, active enzyme (apoenzyme + cofactor). Active Site - The region on an enzyme where substrate binding occurs. Binding Site - The specific part of the active site that interacts with the substrate. Catalytic Site - The area within the active site where the reaction is catalyzed. Induced Fit - The change in enzyme shape upon substrate binding. Substrate - The molecule upon which an enzyme acts. Substrate Concentration - The amount of substrate available for reaction. Optimal pH - The pH level at which an enzyme functions best. Temperature Effect - Higher temperatures increase reaction rate until denaturation occurs. Enzyme Denaturation - The loss of enzyme structure and function due to extreme conditions. Enzyme Inhibition - The decrease in enzyme activity due to binding of inhibitors. Noncompetitive Inhibition - Inhibitor binds to an allosteric site, altering enzyme activity. Oxidation - Loss of electrons or hydrogen atoms. Reduction - Gain of electrons or hydrogen atoms. Redox Reaction - A chemical reaction involving both oxidation and reduction. Kinetic Energy - Energy of motion. Potential Energy - Energy stored within a system (e.g., chemical bonds). First Law of Thermodynamics - Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to another. Second Law of Thermodynamics - In any energy conversion, some energy is lost as heat, increasing the overall disorder (entropy). Entropy - A measure of disorder or randomness in a system. Metabolism - All chemical reactions that occur in an organism. Anabolism - Building larger molecules (e.g., converting glucose molecules into starch). Exergonic Reactions - Reactions with a negative ΔG that release energy (increase entropy and are spontaneous). Endergonic Reactions - Reactions with a positive ΔG that absorb energy (decrease entropy and are nonspontaneous).
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