Ab Ovo –The truest beginning of events of a chronological nature when compared to in medias
res
Ad hominem – A faulty argument based on the failings of an adversary rather than on the merits
of the case; a logical fallacy that involves a personal attack.
Allegory – The device of using character and/or story elements symbolically to represent an
abstraction in addition to the literal meaning. In some allegories, for example, an author may
intend the characters to personify an abstraction like hope or freedom. The allegorical meaning
usually deals with moral truth or a generalization about human existence.
Alliteration – The repetition of consonant sounds, especially initial consonant sounds in two or
more neighboring words (as in “she sells sea shells”). Although the term is not frequently in the
multiple choice section, you can look for alliteration in any essay passage. The repetition can
reinforce meaning, unify ideas, supply a musical sound, and/or echo the sense of the passage.
Allusion – A direct or indirect reference to something which is presumably commonly known,
such as an event, book, myth, place, or work of art. Allusions can be historical, literary, religious,
topical, or mythical. There are many more possibilities, and a work may simultaneously use
multiple layers of allusion.
Ambiguity – The multiple meanings, either intentional or unintentional, of a word, phrase,
sentence, or passage.
Amplification – involves repeating a word or expression while adding more detail to it, in order
to emphasize what might otherwise be passed over. In other words, amplification allows you to
call attention to, emphasize, and expand a word or idea to make sure the reader realizes its
importance or centrality in the discussion.
Example: Pride--boundless pride--is the bane of civilization.
Analogy – A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between
them. An analogy can explain something unfamiliar by associating it with or pointing out its
similarity to something more familiar. Analogies can also make writing more vivid, imaginative,
or intellectually engaging.
Anadiplosis: ("doubling back") the rhetorical repetition of one or several words; specifically,
repetition of a word that ends one clause at the beginning of the next.
Example: Men in great place are thrice servants: servants of the sovereign or state;
servants of fame; and servants of business. Francis Bacon
Anaphora: the repetition of a word or phrase at the beginning of successive phrases, clauses or
lines.
Example: We shall not flag or fail. We shall go on to the end. We shall fight in France, we
shall fight on the seas and oceans, we shall fight with growing confidence and growing
strength in the air, we shall defend our island, whatever the cost may be, we shall fight on
the beaches, we shall fight on the landing grounds, we shall fight in the fields and in the
streets, we shall fight in the hills. We shall never surrender. Churchill.
Antecedent – The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun.
Example: “But it is the grandeur of all truth which can occupy a very high place in
human interests that it is never absolutely novel to the meanest of minds; it exists eternally, by
way of germ of latent principle, in the lowest as in the highest, needing to be developed but never
to be planted.”
The antecedent of “it” (bolded) is “all truth.”

Antistrophe – (Also called epistrophe) repetition of the same word or phrase at the end of
successive clauses.
Example: In 1931, ten years ago, Japan invaded Manchukuo -- without warning. In 1935,
Italy invaded Ethiopia -- without warning. In 1938, Hitler occupied Austria -- without
warning. In 1939, Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia -- without warning. Later in 1939,
Hitler invaded Poland -- without warning. And now Japan has attacked Malaya and
Thailand -- and the United States --without warning. Franklin D. Roosevelt
Antithesis – Opposition, or contrast of ideas or words in a balanced or parallel construction.
Examples: “Extremism in defense of liberty is no vice; moderation in the pursuit of
justice is no virtue.” --Barry Goldwater
Brutus: Not that I loved Caesar less, but that I loved Rome more.
William Shakespeare, Julius Caesar
Aphorism – A terse statement of known authorship which expresses a general truth or a moral
principle. (If the authorship is unknown, the statement is generally considered to be a folk
proverb.) An aphorism can be a memorable summation of the author’s point.
Appositive – A noun phrase that comes after another noun phrase (its antecedent) to provide
extra information about it.
Aporia – (uh-pawr-ee-uh, uh-pohr-) Expression of doubt (often feigned) by which a speaker
appears uncertain as to what he should think, say, or do.
Then the steward said within himself, 'What shall I do?' Luke 16
Aposiopesis– (ap-uh-sahy-uh-pee-sis) A form of ellipse by which a speaker comes to an abrupt
halt, seemingly overcome by passion (fear, excitement, etc.) or modesty.
Apostrophe –A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or a
personified abstraction, such as liberty or love. It is an address to someone or something that
cannot answer. The effect may add familiarity or emotional intensity. William Wordsworth
addresses John Milton as he writes, “Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: /
England hath need of thee.” Another example is Keats’ “Ode to a Grecian Urn,” in which Keats
addresses the urn itself: “Thou still unravished bride of quietness.” Many apostrophes imply a
personification of the object addressed.
Archaism: use of an older or obsolete form.
Example: Pipit sate upright in her chair some distance from where I was sitting.
T. S. Eliot, "A Cooking Egg"
Assonance: repetition of the same vowel sound in words close to each other.
Thy kingdom come, thy will be done.
Asyndeton: lack of conjunctions between coordinate phrases, clauses, or words.
Examples: “We shall pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardships, support any
friend, oppose any foe to assure the survival and the success of liberty.” J. F. Kennedy,
Inaugural
“But, in a larger sense, we cannot dedicate, we cannot consecrate, we cannot hallow this
ground.” Lincoln, “Gettysburg Address”
Atmosphere – The emotional nod created by the entirety of a literary work, established partly by
the setting and partly by the author’s choice of objects that are described. Even such elements as a
description of the weather can contribute to the atmosphere. Frequently atmosphere foreshadows
events. Perhaps, it can create a mood.
Bandwagon – A logical fallacy based on the assumption that the opinion of the majority is
always valid: everyone believes it, so you should too.
Caricature – A verbal description, the purpose of which is to exaggerate or distort, for comic
effect, a person’s distinctive physical features or other characteristics.
Catachresis – (kat-uh-kree-sis) The misuse or strained use of words, as in a mixed metaphor,
occurring either in error or for rhetorical effect. Examples: Mow the beard and shave the grass.

OR to reference a politician as having a “slithering personality.” The word “slithering” may
reference the politician’s unappealing qualities, when, in fact, “slithering” truly means to “slide
over a surface.
Chiasmus- Also called "reverse parallelism," since the second part of a grammatical construction
is balanced or paralleled by the first part, only in reverse order. Instead of an A,B structure (e.g.,
"learned unwillingly") paralleled by another A,B structure ("forgotten gladly"), the A,B will be
followed by B,A ("gladly forgotten"). So instead of writing, "What is learned unwillingly is
forgotten gladly," you could write, "What is learned unwillingly is gladly forgotten."
Circular argumentation – An argument that commits the logical fallacy of assuming what it is
attempting to prove. (Also known as begging the question)
Clause – A grammatical unit that contains both a subject and a verb. An independent, or main,
clause expresses a complete thought and can stand alone as a sentence. A dependent, or
subordinate clause, cannot stand alone as a sentence and must be accompanied by an independent
clause. The point that you want to consider is the question of what or why the author subordinates
one element should also become aware of making effective use of subordination in your own
writing.
Colloquial/colloquialism – The use of slang or informalities in speech or writing. Not generally
acceptable for formal writing, colloquialisms give a work a conversational, familiar tone.
Colloquial expressions in writing include local or regional dialects.
Commoratio – The repetition of a point made several times using different words.
Example: The boy was sad, upset, and depressed.
Complementizer – A word (such as that or if) used to introduce a dependent clause
Compounding – In linguistics, the combining of two or more words to create a new word.
Compounds are sometimes as one word (sunglasses), as two hyphenated words (life-threatening),
or as two separate words (football stadium).
Conceit – A fanciful expression, usually in the form of an extended metaphor or surprising
analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects. A conceit displays intellectual cleverness as a
result of the unusual comparison being made.
Concession – An admission in an argument that the opposing side has points; to grant, allow or
yield to a point.
Conjunction – The part of speech that serves to connect words, phrases, or clauses
Connotation – The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the implied, suggested meaning.
Connotations may involve ideas, emotions, or attitudes.
Declarative sentence – A sentence in the form of a statement (in contrast to an interrogative,
imperative, or exclamatory sentence)
Example: “I’m going to make him an offer he can’t refuse.”
-Don Corleone in The Godfather (1972)
Deduction – The method of reasoning from the general to the specific. (Contrast with induction)
Denotation – The strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude,
or color. (Example: the denotation of a knife would be a utensil used to cut; the connotation of a
knife might be fear, violence, anger, foreboding, etc.)
Diacope – Figure of repetition in the same word or phrase occurs on either side of an intervening
word or phrase; word/phrase x, ..., word/phrase x.
Diction – Related to style, diction refers to the writer’s word choices, especially with regard to
their correctness, clearness, or effectiveness. Diction, combined with syntax, figurative language,
literary devices, etc., creates an author’s style and complement the author’s purpose.
Didactic – From the Greek, didactic literally means “teaching.” Didactic words have the primary
aim of teaching or instructing, especially the teaching of moral or ethical principles.
Dirimens Copulatio – Mentioning a balancing or opposing fact to prevent the argument from
being one-sided or unqualified.

Example: This car is extremely sturdy and durable. It's low maintenance; things never go
wrong with it. Of course, if you abuse it, it will break.
Distinctio – An explicit reference to a particular meaning or to the various meanings of a word, in
order to remove or prevent ambiguity.
Example: To make methanol for twenty-five cents a gallon is impossible; by "impossible"
I mean currently beyond our technological capabilities.
Doxa (doc-sa) – In classical rhetoric, the domain of opinion, belief, or probable knowledge-in
contrast to episteme, the domain of certainty or true knowledge
Either/or fallacy – An error in logic when one gives only two choices and one choice is not
palatable
Ellipses – An Ellipsis is a set of three periods ( ... ) indicating an omission of a word, phrase, or
clause from a quoted passage. Ellipses help by removing irrelevant information and create
succinct writing. Each period should have a single space on either side (but not when next to a
quotation mark-no space is required then.
Enallage (en-al-uh-jee) – Intentionally misusing grammar to characterize a speaker or create a
memorable phrase.
Example: “We was robbed!” Boxing manager Joe Jacobs
Encomium – A tribute or eulogy in prose or verse glorifying people, events, objects or ideas.
Enumeratio – Figure of amplification in which a subject is divided into constituent parts or
details, and may include a listing of causes, effects, problems, solutions, conditions, and
consequences; the listing or detailing of the parts of something.
Example: Kramer: "Who's gonna turn down a Junior Mint? It's chocolate; it's peppermint;
it's delicious."
Seinfeld: "That's true."
Kramer: "It's very refreshing!" (TV sitcom Seinfeld)
Epigraph – the use of a quote at the beginning of a piece of rhetoric that hints at its theme.
Epimone – (eh-pim-o-nee)– Frequent repetition of a phrase or question, dwelling on a point. For
example: Give me the money now. I trusted you. Pay me back now. I want my money! Pay me!
Epiplexis – A kind of rhetorical question whereby the rhetor asks a question or a series of
questions to shame or chide the audience.
Episteme – In classical rhetoric, the domain of true knowledge
Epizeuxis (ep-uh-zoox-sis) – A rhetorical term for repetition of a word or phrase for emphasis,
usually with no words in between.
Examples: "I undid the lantern cautiously-oh, so cautiously-cautiously."
(Edgar Allan Poe, "The Tell-Tale Heart")
"I'm shocked, shocked to find that gambling is going on in here!"
(Captain Renault in Casablanca)
Ethos – A rhetorical appeal to an audience based on the speaker/writer's credibility.
Euphemism – From the Greek for “good speech,” euphemisms are a more agreeable or less
offensive substitute for a generally unpleasant word or concept. The euphemism may be used to
adhere to standards of social or political correctness or to add humor or ironic understatement.
Saying “earthly remains” rather than “corpse” is an example of euphemism.
Exhortation – Any communication that emphatically urges the audience to do something.
Exigence – The part of a rhetorical situation that motivates a writer to create a text. It's the event
or moment that inspires, provokes, or stimulates a writer to speak or write about a particular issue,
problem, or situation. (Not on the quizzes)
Expletive – Figure of emphasis in which a single word or short phrase, usually interrupting
normal speech, is used to lend emphasis to the words on either side of the expletive.
Examples: in fact, of course, to be sure, indeed, I suppose, I hope, , I think, you know, you
see, clearly, in any event, in effect, certainly, remarkably.

Extended metaphor – A metaphor developed at great length, occurring frequently in or
throughout a work.
False authority (appeal to) – A fallacy in which the rhetor attempts to persuade his or her
audience by using well-respected famous names of people rather than evidence or proof.
Figurative language – Writing or speech that is not intended to carry literal meaning and is
usually meant to be imaginative and vivid.
Figure of speech – A device used to produce figurative language. Many compare dissimilar
things. Figures of speech include apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, oxymoron, paradox,
personification, simile, synecdoche, and understatement.
Fragment – An incomplete sentence; A complete sentence must have an independent clause as
its base.
Generic conventions – This term describes traditions for each genre. These conventions help to
define each genre; for example, they differentiate an essay and journalistic writing or an
autobiography and political writing.
Genre – The major category into which a literary work fits. The basic divisions of literature are
prose, poetry, and drama. However, genre is a flexible term; within these broad boundaries exist
many subdivisions that are often called genres themselves. For example, prose can be divided into
fiction (novels and short stories) or nonfiction (essays, biographies, autobiographies, etc.). Poetry
can be divided into lyric, dramatic, narrative, epic, etc. Drama can be divided into tragedy,
comedy, melodrama, farce, etc.
Gerund – A noun formed from a verb. The verb functioning as a noun always ends with –ing.
Examples: Giving, playing, running, voting, studying, writing
Guilt by association – A fallacy where one attempts to discredit an idea or concept based upon
disfavored people or groups associated with it.
Hasty generalization – A fallacy in which a conclusion is drawn from insufficient evidence (too
small of a sample to draw a justifiable conclusion)
Homily – This term literally means “sermon,” but more informally, it can include any serious
talk, speech, or lecture involving moral or spiritual advice.
Hyperbole – A figure of speech using deliberate exaggeration or overstatement. (The literal
Greek meaning is “overshoot.”) Hyperboles often have a comic effect; however, a serious effect is
also possible. Often, hyperbole produces irony. The opposite of hyperbole is understatement.
Hypophora – Figure of reasoning in which one or more questions is/are asked and then
answered, often at length, by one and the same speaker; raising and responding to one's own
question(s).
Illocutionary force – The speaker’s intention when he or she delivers an utterance
Example: “When I say ‘how are you?’ to a co-worker, I really mean hello. Although I
know what I mean by the statement, it is possible that the receiver does not know that I
mean ‘hello’ and proceeds to give me a fifteen-minute discourse on his maladies.”
-George Ritzer
Imagery – The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or
represent abstractions. On a physical level, imagery uses terms related to the five senses: visual,
auditory, tactile, gustatory, and olfactory. On a broader and deeper level, however, one image can
represent more than one thing. For example, a rose may present visual imagery while also
representing the color in a woman’s cheeks and/or symbolizing some degree of perfection. An
author may use complex imagery while simultaneously employing other figures of speech,
especially metaphor and simile. In addition, this term can apply to the total of all the images in a
work.
Imperative sentence – type of sentence that gives advice or instructions or that expresses a
request or command. (Contrast with declarative or interrogative sentences)
Example: “Leave the gun. Take the cannoli.” Clemenza in The Godfather (1972)

Induction – A method of reasoning that moves from specific instances to a general conclusion
(contrast with deduction)
Inference/infer – To draw a reasonable conclusion from the information presented. When a
multiple choice question asks for an inference to be drawn from a passage, the most direct, most
reasonable inference is the safest answer choice. If an inference is implausible, it’s unlikely to be
the correct answer. Note that if the answer choice is directly stated, it is not inferred and it is
wrong. You must be careful to note the connotation – negative or positive – of the choices.
Infinitive Phrase– An infinitive phrase starts with an infinitive [to + simple form of the
verb]. It will include objects and/or modifiers.
Interrogative sentence – A type of sentence that asks a question (contrast to declarative or
imperative sentences)
Invective – an emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.
Example: in Henry IV, Part I, Prince Hal calls the large character of Falstaff “this
sanguine coward, this bed presser, this horseback breaker, this huge hill of flesh.”
Irony/ironic – The contrast between what is stated explicitly and what is really meant, or the
difference between what appears to be and what is actually true. Irony is often used to create
poignancy or humor. In general, there are three major types of irony used in language:
(1) Cosmic irony (irony of fate) – irony that goes beyond being unfair and is morally tragic; this
severe irony may cause one to question life or see the world pessimistically.
(1) Dramatic irony – when facts or events are unknown to a character in a play or piece of fiction
but known to the reader, audience, or other characters in the work.
(2) Situational irony – when events turn out the opposite of what was expected; when what the
characters and readers think ought to happen is not what does happen
(3) Socratic irony – when one feigns ignorance-asking questions to which he/she may already
know the answers (normally used to stimulate critical thinking or illuminate ideas).
(4) Verbal irony – when the words literally state the opposite of the writer’s (or speaker’s)
meaning
Juxtaposition – the “side by side” comparison of two or more objects or ideals for the purpose of
highlighting similarities or differences.
Kenning – a metaphoric compound word or phrase used as a synonym for a common noun.
Examples: “Ring-bestower” for king; “whale-road” for sea; “candle of heaven” for the
sun; “war-brand” for a sword.
Litotes (lit-toe-tee) – a form of understatement that involves making an affirmative point by
denying its opposite. Litotes is the opposite of hyperbole.
Examples: “Not a bad idea,” “Not many,” “It isn’t very serious. I have this tiny little
tumor on the brain.” (J.D. Salinger, Catcher in the Rye).
Logos – Rhetorical appeals based on logic or reasoning.
Loose sentence/non-periodic sentence – A type of sentence in which the main idea (independent
clause) comes first, followed by dependent grammatical units such as phrases and clauses. If a
period were placed at the end of the independent clause, the clause would be a complete sentence.
A work containing many loose sentences often seems informal, relaxed, or conversational.
Generally, loose sentences create loose style. The opposite of a loose sentence is the periodic
sentence.
Example: I arrived at the San Diego airport after a long, bumpy ride and multiple delays.
She played on the swing after the sun had already sunk behind the roof tops of the golden
town.
Metabasis – consists of a brief statement of what has been said and what will follow. It might be
called a linking, running, or transitional summary, whose function is to keep the discussion
ordered and clear in its progress:
Example: Such, then, would be my diagnosis of the present condition of art. I must now,
by special request, say what I think will happen to art in the future. --Kenneth Clark

Metaphor – A figure of speech using implied comparison of seemingly unlike things or the
substitution of one for the other, suggesting some similarity. Metaphorical language makes
writing more vivid, imaginative, thought provoking, and meaningful.
Metonymy – (mĕtŏn′ ĭmē) A term from the Greek meaning “changed label” or “substitute name,”
metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of one object is substituted for that of another
closely associated with it.
Example, a news release that claims “the White House declared” rather than “the
President declared” is using metonymy; Shakespeare uses it to signify the male and
female sexes in As You Like It: “doublet and hose ought to show itself courageous to
petticoat.” The substituted term generally carries a more potent emotional impact.
Mood – The prevailing atmosphere or emotional aura of a work. Setting, tone, and events can
affect the mood. Mood is similar to tone and atmosphere.
Narrative – The telling of a story or an account of an event or series of events.
Nonce word – A word coined or used for a special occasion
Noun: A word that refers to a person, place, thing, or idea—Broken down as abstract, concrete,
common, proper, mass (furniture), or countable (farmer) (Not on the quizzes)
Onomatopoeia – A figure of speech in which natural sounds are imitated in the sounds of words.
If you note examples of onomatopoeia in an essay passage, note the effect.
Examples: buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, and murmur.
Oxymoron – From the Greek for “pointedly foolish,” an oxymoron is a figure of speech wherein
the author groups apparently contradictory terms to suggest a paradox. This term does not usually
appear in the multiple-choice questions, but there is a chance that you might find it in an essay.
Take note of the effect that the author achieves with the use of oxymoron.
Examples: “jumbo shrimp” and “cruel kindness.”
Paradox – A statement that appears to be self-contradictory or opposed to common sense but
upon closer inspection contains some degree of truth or validity.
Example: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times....”
Charles Dickens’ Tale of Two Cities
Parallelism – (parallel construction or parallel structure) This term comes from Greek roots
meaning “beside one another.” It refers to the grammatical or rhetorical framing of words,
phrases, sentences, or paragraphs to give structural similarity. This can involve, but is not limited
to, repetition of a grammatical element such as a preposition or verbal phrase.
Example: “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it
was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of believe, it was the epoch of incredulity....” The
effects of parallelism are numerous, but frequently they act as an organizing force to attract the
reader’s attention, add emphasis and organization, or simply provide a musical rhythm.
Parody – A work that closely imitates the style or content of another with the specific aim of
comic effect and/or ridicule. It exploits peculiarities of an author’s expression (propensity to use
too many parentheses, certain favorite words, etc.) Well-written parody offers enlightenment
about the original, but poorly written parody offers only ineffectual imitation. Usually an
audience must grasp literary allusion and understand the work being parodied in order to fully
appreciate the nuances of the newer work. Occasionally, however, parodies take on a life of their
own and don’t require knowledge of the original.
Pathos – An emotional appeal used in rhetoric
Pedantic – An adjective that describes words, phrases, or general tone that is overly scholarly,
academic, or bookish (Language that might be described as “show-offy”; using big words for the
sake of using big words).
Periodic sentence (period) – The opposite of loose sentence, a sentence that presents its central
meaning in a main clause at the end. This independent clause is preceded by a phrase or clause
that cannot stand alone. The effect of a periodic sentence is to add emphasis and structural variety.
It is also a much stronger sentence than the loose sentence.

Example: After a long, bumpy flight and multiple delays, I arrived at the San Diego
airport.
Personification – A figure of speech in which the author presents or describes concepts, animals,
or inanimate objects by endowing them with human attributes or emotions.
Phrase – A phrase contains two or more words that do not contain a subject or a verb. Phrases
can vary in length-very long or very short. Certain phrases have specific names: absolute phrase,
gerund phrase, infinitive phrase, noun phrase, and verb phrase
Phronesis – In classical rhetoric, it’s prudence and practical wisdom. For Aristotle it was one of
the rhetorical constituents of creating ethos.
Ploce – (ploh-see) A rhetorical term for repetition of a word or name with a new or more specific
sense.
Examples: “The future is no place to place your better days." (Dave Matthews, "Cry
Freedom")
"If it wasn't in Vogue, it wasn't in vogue." (Promotional slogan for Vogue magazine)
Point of view – In literature, the perspective from which a story is told. There are two general
divisions of point of view, and many subdivisions within those.
(1) First person narrator tells the story with the first person pronoun, “I,” and is a character in the
story. This narrator can be the protagonist, a secondary character, or an observing character.
(2) Third person narrator relates the events with the third person pronouns, “he,” “she,” and “it.”
There are two main subdivisions to be aware of:
a. Third person omniscient, in which the narrator, with godlike knowledge, presents the thoughts
and actions of any or all characters
b. Third person limited, in which the narrator presents the feelings and thoughts of only one
character, presenting only the actions of all the remaining characters. In addition, be aware that
the term point of view carries an additional meaning. When you are asked to analyze the author’s
point of view, the appropriate point for you to address is the author’s attitude.
Polyptoton – A rhetorical term for repetition of words derived from the same root but with
different endings.
Example: "You can't keep blaming yourself. Blame yourself once, and then move on."
-Homer Simpson, The Simpsons
Polysyndeton – The repetition of conjunctions in a series of coordinate words, phrases, or
clauses.
Example: I said, "Who killed him?" and he said, "I don't know who killed him but he's
dead alright," and it was dark and there was water standing in the street and no lights and
windows broke and boats all up in the town and trees blown down and everything all
blown and I got a skiff and went out and found my boat where I had her inside Mango
Bay and she was all right only she was full of water. Hemingway, “After the Storm”
Post hoc – A fallacy in which one event is said to be the cause of a later event simply because it
occurred earlier.
Predicate – One of the two main parts of a clause or sentence, modifying the subject and
including the verb, objects, or phrases governed by the verb.
Procatalepsis – By anticipating an objection and answering it, permits an argument to continue
moving forward while taking into account points or reasons opposing either the train of thought
or its final conclusions. Often the objections are standard ones:
Example: It is usually argued at this point that if the government gets out of the mail
delivery business, small towns like Podunk will not have any mail service. The answer to
this can be found in the history of the Pony Express . . . .
Pronoun – When discussing parts of speech, it is a word that takes the place of a noun.
Prose – One of the major divisions of genre, prose refers to fiction and nonfiction, including all
its forms. In prose the printer determines the length of the line; in poetry, the poet determines the
length of the line.

Pysma –Asking multiple questions successively, which would together require a complex reply.
Qualifier –Words or phrases expressing the writer’s degree of certainty concerning a claim.
Red herring – Considered a fallacy, it’s an observation that draws attention away from the
central issue in an argument or discussion.
Refutation – The part of an argument wherein a speaker or writer anticipates and counters an
opposing point of view.
Repetition – The duplication, either exact or approximate, of any element of language, such as a
sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or grammatical pattern.
Restrictio – Making an exception to a previously made statement. Restricting or limiting what
has already been stated.
Example: “She’s the most beautiful woman in the world-present company excepted.” He
blurted to his wife.
Rhetoric – From the Greek for “orator,” this term describes the principles governing the art of
communicating effectively, eloquently, and persuasively.
Rhetorical modes – This flexible term describes the variety, the conventions, and the purposes of
the major kinds of writing. The most common rhetorical modes (often referred to as “modes of
discourse”) are as follows:
(1) Exposition (or expository writing) is to explain and analyze information by presenting an idea,
relevant evidence, and appropriate discussion.
(2) Argumentation is to prove the validity of an idea, or point of view, by presenting sound
reasoning, discussion, and argument that thoroughly convince the reader. Persuasive writing is a
type of argumentation having an additional aim of urging some form of action.
(3) Description is to recreate, invent, or visually present a person, place, event or action so that
the reader can picture that being described. Sometimes an author engages all five senses in
description; good descriptive writing can be sensuous and picturesque.
(4) Narration is to tell a story or narrate an event or series of events. This writing mode frequently
uses the tools of descriptive writing.
(5) Compare/Contrast – showing a subject more clearly by pointing out ways that it is similar, or
unlike, something else.
Rhetorical shift – A change or movement in a piece of writing from one point, thought, concept,
etc. to another; signaled by words such as but, then, however, etc.
Rogerian Argument (Carl) – Instead of setting up the classical adversarial relationship of many
western-tradition arguments, the Rogerian Argument tries to find a common ground to a problem;
thus, the writer and his or her audience are more likely to find a solution to the problem.
Running style – In rhetoric, a sentence style that appears to follow the mind as it worries a
problem through, mimicking a rambling stream of conscience.
Sarcasm – From the Greek meaning “to tear flesh,” sarcasm involves bitter, caustic language that
is meant to hurt or ridicule someone or something. It may use irony as a device, but not all ironic
statements are sarcastic (that is, intended to ridicule). When well done, sarcasm can be witty and
insightful; when poorly done, it is simply cruel.
Satire – A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for
reform or ridicule. Regardless of whether or not the work aims to reform human behavior, satire
is best seen as a style of writing rather than a purpose for writing. It can be recognized by the
many devices used effectively by the satirist: irony, wit, parody, caricature, hyperbole,
understatement, and sarcasm. The effects of satire are varied, depending on the writer’s goal, but
good satire, often humorous, is thought provoking and insightful about the human condition.
Scesis onomaton (skee'-sis-ah-no-maw-ton) – Figure of repetition in which a set of two or more
different words having the same (or very nearly the same) meaning occurs within the same
sentence; a successive series of words or phrases whose meanings are generally equivalent.
Semantics – The branch of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, their historical and
psychological development, their connotations, and their relation to one another.

Sententia (sen-ten-chee-uh) – Figure of argument in which a wise, witty, or pithy maxim or
aphorism is used to sum up the preceding material.
Slippery slope – A fallacy in which a course of action is objected to on the grounds that once
taken it will lead to additional actions until some undesirable consequence results.
Style – The consideration of style has two purposes:
(1) An evaluation of the sum of the choices an author makes in blending diction, syntax,
figurative language, and other literary devices. Some authors’ styles are so idiosyncratic that we
can quickly recognize works by the same author. We can analyze and describe an author’s
personal style and make judgments on how appropriate it is to the author’s purpose. Styles can be
called flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, laconic, etc. (2)
Classification of authors to a group and comparison of an author to similar authors.
Subject complement – The word (with any accompanying phrases) or clause that follows a
linking verb and complements or completes the subject of the sentence by either (1) renaming it
(the predicate nominative) or (2) describing it (the predicate adjective). These are defined below:
(1) the predicate nominative – a noun, group of nouns, or noun clause that renames the subject. It,
like the predicate adjective, follows a linking verb and is located in the predicate of the sentence.
Example: Julia Roberts is a movie star. movie star = predicate nominative, as it renames
the subject, Julia Roberts
(2) the predicate adjective -- an adjective, a group of adjectives, or adjective clause that follows a
linking verb. It is in the predicate of the sentence, and modifies, or describes, the subject.
Example: Warren remained optimistic. optimistic = predicate adjective, as it modifies the
subject, Warren
Subordinate clause – Like all clauses, this word group contains both a subject and a verb (plus
any accompanying phrases or modifiers), but unlike the independent clause, the subordinate
clause cannot stand alone; it does not express a complete thought. Also called a dependent clause,
the subordinate clause depends on a main clause (or independent clause) to complete its meaning.
Easily recognized key words and phrases usually begin these clauses.
Examples: although, because, unless, if, even though, since, as soon as, while, who,
when, where, how and that.
Example: Yellowstone is a national park in the West that is known for its geysers.
Subordinating conjunction – A conjunction that introduces a dependent clause.
Examples: After, although because, before, if, once, since, than, that, though, unless,
until, when, whenever, where, wherever, whether, while, why
Syllepsis – Use of a word with two others, with each of which it is understood differently.
Example: “We must all hang together or assuredly we will all hang separately.”
-Benjamin Franklin
Syllogism – From the Greek for “reckoning together,” a syllogism (or syllogistic reasoning or
syllogistic logic) is a deductive system of formal logic that presents two premises (the first one
called “major” and the second called “minor”) that inevitably lead to a sound conclusion. A
frequently cited example proceeds as follows:
Major premise: All men are mortal.
Minor premise: Socrates is a man.
Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is a mortal.
A syllogism’s conclusion is valid only if each of the two premises is valid. Syllogisms may also
present the specific idea first (“Socrates”) and the general second (“all men”).
Symbol/symbolism – Generally, anything that represents itself and stands for something else.
Usually a symbol is something concrete -- such as an object, action, character, or scene – that
represents something more abstract. However, symbols and symbolism can be much more
complex. One system classifies symbols into three categories:

(1) Natural symbols are objects and occurrences from nature to symbolize ideas commonly
associated with them (dawn symbolizing hope or a new beginning, a rose symbolizing love, a tree
symbolizing knowledge).
(2) Conventional symbols are those that have been invested with meaning by a group (religious
symbols such as a cross or Star of David; national symbols, such as a flag or an eagle; or group
symbols, such as a skull and crossbones for pirates or the scale of justice for lawyers).
(3) Literary symbols are sometimes also conventional in the sense that they are found in a variety
of works and are more generally recognized.
Symploce – (sim-ploh-see) A figure of speech in which several successive clauses have the same
first and last words. (A combination of anaphora and antistrophe)
Synaeresis – (sin-air-e-sis) When two syllables are contracted into one.
Example: Instead of saying “New Orleans,” one says “Nawlins.”
Synecdoche – (si-nek-duh-kee) A figure of speech in which a part of something is used to
represent the whole or, occasionally, the whole is used to represent a part. Examples: To refer to a
boat as a “sail”; to refer to a car as “wheels”; to refer to the violins, violas, etc. in an orchestra as
“the strings.” **Different than metonymy, in which one thing is represented by another thing that
is commonly physically associated with it (but is not necessarily a part of it), i.e., referring to a
monarch as “the crown” or the President as “The White House.”
Synesthesia – (Sin-uhs-theez-ia) When one kind of sensory stimulus evokes the subjective
experience of another.
Examples: (1)The sight of red ants makes you itchy. In literature, synesthesia refers to the
practice of associating two or more different senses in the same image.
(2) The Red Hot Chili Peppers’ song title, “Taste the Pain.”
Syntax – The way an author chooses to join words into phrases, clauses, and sentences. Syntax is
similar to diction, but you can differentiate them by thinking of syntax as groups of words, while
diction refers to the individual words.
Tautology – The repetition of an idea in a different word, phrase or sentence.
Example: “With malice toward none, with charity for all.” Abraham Lincoln.
Theme – The central idea or message of a work, the insight it offers into life. Usually theme is
unstated in fictional works, but in nonfiction, the theme may be directly state, especially in
expository or argumentative writing.
Thesis – In expository writing, the thesis statement is the sentence or group of sentences that
directly expresses the author’s opinion, purpose, meaning, or position. Expository writing is
usually judged by analyzing how accurately, effectively, and thoroughly a writer has proven the
thesis.
Tone – Similar to mood, tone describes the author’s attitude toward his material, the audience, or
both. Tone is easier to determine in spoken language than in written language. Considering how a
work would sound if it were read aloud can help in identifying an author’s tone.
Examples: Playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, ornate, sardonic...
Transition – A word or phrase that links different ideas. Used especially, although not
exclusively, in expository and argumentative writing, transitions effectively signal a shift from
one idea to another.
Examples: furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, for example, in addition, likewise,
similarly, on the contrary, etc. More sophisticated writers use more subtle means of
transition.
Tricolon – The pattern of three phrases in parallel, found commonly in Western writing after
Cicero. For example, the kitten had white fur, blue eyes, and a pink tongue.
Tsmesis (tuh-me-sis) – Intentionally breaking a word into two parts for emphasis.
Example: “I have but two words for you: Im Possible.”

Understatement – the ironic minimalizing of fact, understatement presents something as less
significant than it is. The effect can frequently be humorous and emphatic. Understatement is the
opposite of hyperbole.
Example: Jonathan Swift’s A Tale of a Tub: “Last week I saw a woman flayed, and you
will hardly believe how much it altered her person for the worse.”
Universal audience – An audience consisting of all humankind (most specifically of adult age
and normal mental capacity).
Utterance – A complete unit of speech in spoken language. It is generally but not always
bounded by silence. It can be represented and delineated in written language in many ways. Note
that utterances do not exist in written language, only their representations do.
Validity – Apprehension over the structure of an argument. It is also largely synonymous with
logical truth; however, the term is used in different contexts. Validity is a property of formulae,
statements and arguments. A logically valid argument is one where the conclusion follows from
the premises. An invalid argument is where the conclusion does not follow from the premises. A
deductive argument may be valid but not sound. In other words, validity is a necessary condition
for truth of a deductive syllogism but is not a sufficient condition.
Verb: A word that shows an action or a state of being. Most sentences require a verb. (Not on the
quizzes)
Verba – Latin: The part of an argument that advances the subject matter.
Verbing – A type of conversion in which a noun is used as a verb or verbal
Example: Do alligators alligate?
Vir bonus beni dicendi – Latin: The good man speaking well. (Rarely on the quizzes)
Visual rhetoric – A theoretical framework describing how visual images communicate, as
opposed to aural or verbal messages. Some examples of artifacts analyzed by visual rhetoricians
are charts, paintings, sculpture, diagrams, web pages, advertisements, movies, architecture,
newspapers, photographs, etc.
Voice
Active Voice – The verb form (or voice) in which the subject of the sentence performs or causes
the action expressed by the verb.
Passive Voice – A verb form (or voice) in which the grammatical subject receives the verb's
action.
Example: "A good time was had by all." Contrast with active voice. The most common
form of the passive in English is the short passive or agentless passive: a construction in
which the agent (that is, the performer of an action) is not identified. Example: "Mistakes
were made."
Wit – Intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights. A witty statement is humorous,
while suggesting the speaker’s verbal power in creating ingenious and perceptive remarks. Wit
usually uses terse language that makes a pointed statement.
Zeugma (zug-muh) – When two different words are linked to (or governed by) a verb or an
adjective which is strictly appropriate to only one of them.
Example: One fine morning, Mr. Boesch opened his classroom door and his heart to his
favorite AP class.