Whole Unit 1

Chapter 1: Indigenous Societies Before European Contact

1.1 | The First Americans

• The first people in the Americas arrived via the Bering Land Bridge, which connected Siberia and Alaska during the last Ice Age (~15,000–20,000 years ago).

• These early migrants, called Paleo-Indians, spread across North and South America, adapting to different environments.

• Over time, they developed hunting, fishing, and agriculture, leading to complex societies with unique cultures, religions, and economies.

• As the Ice Age ended, the land bridge disappeared, isolating the Americas from the rest of the world for thousands of years.

1.2 | Major Pre-Columbian Civilizations.

Key Civilizations Before European Contact

Before Europeans arrived, the Americas were home to advanced civilizations with large cities, trade networks, and unique cultures. Here are some major ones:

1. Mesoamerican Civilizations (Mexico & Central America)

• Aztecs (Mexico)

  • Built Tenochtitlán, a massive city on a lake (modern-day Mexico City).

  • Practiced chinampa farming (floating gardens).

  • Strong military, expanded through warfare and tribute systems.

  • Polytheistic, practiced human sacrifice for religious rituals.

• Maya (Central America - Yucatán Peninsula, Guatemala, Belize, Honduras)

  • Developed the first writing system in the Americas (glyphs).

  • Built large city-states like Tikal and Chichen Itza.

  • Expert astronomers and mathematicians (created a 365-day calendar).

  • Society mysteriously declined before European arrival.

2. Andean Civilizations (South America)

• Inca (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Chile)

  • Capital: Cuzco; famous city: Machu Picchu.

  • Developed terrace farming in mountains.

  • Built an extensive road system (~25,000 miles) to connect the empire.

  • Used quipu (knotted strings) instead of writing for record-keeping.

3. North American Civilizations

• Mississippians (Southeastern U.S.)

  • Largest city: Cahokia (Illinois), home to 20,000+ people.

  • Built mounds for religious, political, and social purposes.

  • Extensive trade networks across North America.

• Iroquois Confederacy (Northeastern U.S.)

  • Alliance of several tribes (Haudenosaunee – Mohawk, Oneida, Onondaga, Cayuga, Seneca, later Tuscarora).

  • Developed an early democratic government that influenced the U.S. Constitution.

  • Matrilineal society (women had significant political power).

These civilizations had complex societies, large populations, and advanced knowledge long before Europeans arrived.

1.3 | Regional Diversity Among North American Indigenous Societies

Not all Indigenous groups lived in massive cities like the Aztecs or Inca. Many had diverse lifestyles based on geography, climate, and available resources.

1. Great Plains (Midwest U.S.)

• Nomadic hunters relied on bison (buffalo) for food, clothing, and shelter.

• Used teepees for easy mobility.

• After Europeans arrived, they adopted horses (brought by the Spanish), which transformed their way of life.

2. Southwest (Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado)

• Pueblo peoples (Hopi, Zuni, Acoma, Taos) built adobe houses and complex irrigation systems.

• The Ancestral Puebloans (Anasazi) built cliff dwellings like Mesa Verde.

3. Northeast & Great Lakes (New York, Pennsylvania, Canada)

• Iroquois Confederacy (Haudenosaunee) developed a powerful democratic alliance.

• Algonquian-speaking tribes (Pequot, Wampanoag, Shawnee) relied on farming, fishing, and seasonal hunting.

4. Southeast (Florida, Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi)

• Mississippian culture built mound cities like Cahokia.

• Grew corn, beans, and squash ("Three Sisters" agriculture).

5. Pacific Northwest (Oregon, Washington, Alaska)

• Lived in permanent villages, relied on fishing (salmon).

• Built totem poles to record history and social status.

Big Idea:

Native American societies weren’t one single culture—they were diverse, adapted to their environment, and had unique traditions long before Europeans arrived.

Lesson 1.4 | Culture, Trade, and Belief Systems of Indigenous Societies

Indigenous societies weren’t just diverse in geography—they also had complex cultures, trade networks, and spiritual beliefs that shaped their daily lives.

1. Religion and Belief Systems

• Most Indigenous groups were polytheistic (believed in multiple spirits/gods).

• Many believed in animism, the idea that nature (animals, rivers, mountains) has a spirit.

• Religious ceremonies often focused on agriculture, hunting, and seasonal changes.

• Shamans or spiritual leaders played an important role in healing and rituals.

2. Trade Networks

• Trade wasn’t just about goods—it helped spread ideas, technology, and culture.

• The Mississippians (Cahokia) traded shells, copper, and obsidian across North America.

• The Southwest tribes (Pueblo) traded with Mesoamerican civilizations like the Aztecs.

• The Iroquois and Algonquians traded furs, tools, and food with neighboring groups.

3. Social Structures

• Many tribes had matrilineal societies, meaning ancestry was traced through the mother’s side (e.g., Iroquois).

• Some groups had chiefs or councils to make decisions, while others were more egalitarian.

• Warfare often happened over land, resources, or revenge, but alliances like the Iroquois Confederacy helped prevent conflict.

Big Idea:

Indigenous societies had rich cultures, spiritual beliefs, and vast trade networks that connected different regions long before European contact.

Chapter 2: Early European Exploration and Contact

2.1 | European Motivations for Exploration

As European nations began exploring, several key explorers played a major role in discovering and claiming new lands.

1. Portugal: Prince Henry, Dias, and da Gama

• Prince Henry the Navigator: Funded exploration schools and voyages along Africa’s coast.

• Bartolomeu Dias (1488): First European to reach the southern tip of Africa (Cape of Good Hope).

• Vasco da Gama (1498): First European to reach India by sea, creating a direct trade route.

2. Spain: Columbus, Magellan, and Conquistadors

• Christopher Columbus (1492):

  • Sponsored by Spain’s Ferdinand and Isabella to find a new route to Asia.

  • Landed in the Caribbean (Bahamas) but thought he was in India.

  • His voyage opened the Americas to European colonization.

• Ferdinand Magellan (1519-1522):

  • Led the first voyage to circumnavigate the globe (though he died before finishing).

• Hernán Cortés (1519):

  • Conquered the Aztec Empire (Mexico) with the help of superior weapons and alliances.

• Francisco Pizarro (1532):

  • Conquered the Inca Empire (Peru) by capturing the emperor Atahualpa.

3. England, France, and the Netherlands

• John Cabot (England, 1497): Claimed Newfoundland for England.

• Jacques Cartier (France, 1534): Explored the St. Lawrence River (Canada).

• Henry Hudson (Dutch & English, early 1600s): Explored the Hudson River and Hudson Bay.

Big Idea:

European explorers claimed new lands, set up trade routes, and began the colonization of the Americas, which would change history forever.

As European nations began exploring, several key explorers played a major role in discovering and claiming new lands.

1. Portugal: Prince Henry, Dias, and da Gama

• Prince Henry the Navigator: Funded exploration schools and voyages along Africa’s coast.

• Bartolomeu Dias (1488): First European to reach the southern tip of Africa (Cape of Good Hope).

• Vasco da Gama (1498): First European to reach India by sea, creating a direct trade route.

2. Spain: Columbus, Magellan, and Conquistadors

• Christopher Columbus (1492):

  • Sponsored by Spain’s Ferdinand and Isabella to find a new route to Asia.

  • Landed in the Caribbean (Bahamas) but thought he was in India.

  • His voyage opened the Americas to European colonization.

• Ferdinand Magellan (1519-1522):

  • Led the first voyage to circumnavigate the globe (though he died before finishing).

• Hernán Cortés (1519):

  • Conquered the Aztec Empire (Mexico) with the help of superior weapons and alliances.

• Francisco Pizarro (1532):

  • Conquered the Inca Empire (Peru) by capturing the emperor Atahualpa.

3. England, France, and the Netherlands

• John Cabot (England, 1497): Claimed Newfoundland for England.

• Jacques Cartier (France, 1534): Explored the St. Lawrence River (Canada).

• Henry Hudson (Dutch & English, early 1600s): Explored the Hudson River and Hudson Bay.

Big Idea:

European explorers claimed new lands, set up trade routes, and began the colonization of the Americas, which would change history forever.

2.3 | The Columbian Exchange and Its Effects

When Europeans arrived in the Americas, they didn’t just bring themselves—they also brought plants, animals, diseases, and ideas in what became known as the Columbian Exchange.

1. What Was the Columbian Exchange?

• A massive exchange of goods, crops, animals, people, and diseases between the Old World (Europe, Africa, Asia) and the New World (the Americas).

• Named after Christopher Columbus, whose voyages started the global connection.

2. What Was Exchanged?

3. Major Effects of the Columbian Exchange

• For Europe:

  • New foods (potatoes, corn) → Population boom.

  • Gold & silver from the Americas → More wealth & power.

• For the Americas:

  • Diseases wiped out millions of Indigenous people (90% mortality in some areas).

  • Introduction of horses changed Native American culture (especially in the Great Plains).

• For Africa:

  • The demand for labor in the Americas → Transatlantic Slave Trade grew.

Big Idea:

The Columbian Exchange dramatically changed the world by introducing new foods, animals, and cultures, but it also led to disease, forced labor, and colonization.

2.4 | The Transatlantic Slave Trade and Its Beginnings

As European colonies grew in the Americas, they needed a large labor force to work on plantations. This led to the expansion of the Transatlantic Slave Trade, which forcibly brought millions of Africans to the Americas.

1. Why Did Europeans Enslave Africans?

• Decline of Indigenous Labor: Diseases from the Columbian Exchange killed up to 90% of Native Americans, making them less available as laborers.

• Demand for Cash Crops: European plantations in the Americas needed laborers to grow sugar, tobacco, and cotton.

• African Slave Trade Networks: Some African kingdoms (like the Kingdom of Dahomey and Ashanti Empire) already practiced slavery and sold captives to Europeans in exchange for guns and goods.

2. The Triangular Trade

The Transatlantic Slave Trade was part of a larger system called the Triangular Trade, which connected Europe, Africa, and the Americas.

• Europe → Africa: Manufactured goods (guns, textiles, rum) were sent to African leaders in exchange for enslaved people.

• Africa → Americas (Middle Passage): Enslaved Africans were transported under horrific conditions (chained, crammed ships, disease, abuse).

• Americas → Europe: Plantation crops (sugar, cotton, tobacco) were sent back to Europe for profit.

3. The Middle Passage: The Journey of the Enslaved

• The Middle Passage was the brutal voyage from Africa to the Americas.

• Conditions:

  • People were packed tightly in slave ships with little space to move.

  • Disease, starvation, and abuse killed 15-20% of enslaved people before arrival.

  • Survivors were sold into slavery and forced to work in plantations and homes.

4. Effects of the Slave Trade

• Africa: Devastated populations, increased warfare, and loss of millions of young men and women.

• The Americas: Built economies based on slave labor, leading to racial hierarchies and systemic racism.

• Europe: Gained massive wealth from plantation economies.

Big Idea:

The Transatlantic Slave Trade fueled European economies but caused immense suffering and lasting social impacts for Africans and their descendants.

2.5 | Spanish and Portuguese Colonization

As Spain and Portugal expanded their empires in the Americas, they established colonial systems that shaped the region’s culture, economy, and society.

1. The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)

• Spain and Portugal argued over land claims in the New World.

• The Pope created the Line of Demarcation, dividing the world:

  • Spain controlled most of the Americas.

  • Portugal controlled Brazil and parts of Africa & Asia.

2. The Encomienda System: Forced Indigenous Labor

• Spanish colonizers were granted land and Indigenous labor by the Spanish Crown.

• In exchange, they were supposed to "protect" and convert Indigenous people to Christianity.

• Reality: It became a system of brutal forced labor (like slavery), especially in gold & silver mines.

3. The Role of Catholic Missions

• Spain and Portugal spread Catholicism through missionaries.

• Franciscans and Jesuits built missions (church settlements) to convert Indigenous people.

• Effects: Some Indigenous people converted, but many resisted or blended Christianity with their own beliefs.

4. Racial Hierarchy: The Casta System

Spanish colonies developed a rigid social hierarchy based on race:

• The Casta System reinforced Spanish dominance and limited social mobility for non-Europeans.

Big Idea:

Spanish and Portuguese colonization shaped economies (gold, plantations), societies (rigid racial hierarchy), and cultures (Catholic influence), but also caused forced labor, Indigenous resistance, and long-term inequalities.

2.6 | French, Dutch, and English Colonization

While Spain and Portugal dominated early colonization, France, the Netherlands, and England also established colonies in North America. Each had different goals and strategies.

1. French Colonization: The Fur Trade Empire

• Location: Canada (New France), Great Lakes, Mississippi River (Louisiana).

• Economy:

  • Focused on fur trading, especially beaver pelts, which were valuable in Europe.

  • Partnered with Native American tribes like the Huron for trade.

• Relations with Natives:

  • Friendly alliances with Indigenous groups.

  • French traders often lived among Native peoples and intermarried.

• Catholic Missions: Jesuit missionaries tried to convert Natives but were less aggressive than Spain.

2. Dutch Colonization: Commerce and Trade

• Location: New Netherland (present-day New York, Hudson River Valley).

• Economy:

  • Focused on trade, especially fur and shipping.

  • The Dutch West India Company controlled New Amsterdam (New York City).

• Relations with Natives:

  • Mainly business-focused; did not prioritize conversion.

  • Some conflicts, but mostly peaceful trade.

3. English Colonization: Settler Societies

• Location: East Coast of North America (Jamestown, Plymouth, Massachusetts Bay).

• Economy:

  • Early colonies (Jamestown) relied on tobacco plantations for profit.

  • New England focused on small farming, trade, and fishing.

• Relations with Natives:

  • At first, some cooperation (Squanto helped Pilgrims).

  • Eventually led to violent conflicts (e.g., Powhatan Wars, Pequot War, King Philip’s War).

• Religion:

  • Puritans and Pilgrims sought religious freedom in New England.

  • Anglicans settled in the South.

Big Idea:

Each European power had different colonization strategies:

• French: Trade and alliances with Natives.

• Dutch: Business-focused with minimal settlement.

• English: Permanent settler colonies, often leading to Native conflicts.

2.7 | Conflicts and Consequences of European Colonization

As European powers expanded their territories in North America, conflicts arose between colonizers, Indigenous peoples, and rival European nations. These struggles shaped the political and social landscape of the New World.

1. Native Resistance to Colonization

Indigenous groups resisted European expansion through warfare, diplomacy, and alliances.

• The Pueblo Revolt (1680):

  • The Pueblo people (New Mexico) revolted against Spanish rule.

  • Led by Popé, they expelled the Spanish for 12 years before Spain regained control.

  • Spain lessened forced labor and religious oppression afterward.

• King Philip’s War (1675-1676):

  • Metacom (King Philip) led a Native alliance against English settlers in New England.

  • One of the bloodiest conflicts in U.S. history.

  • Colonists won, leading to the near-destruction of many Indigenous groups.

2. European Rivalries in North America

European nations often competed for land, trade routes, and influence.

• Anglo-Dutch Wars (1650s-1670s): England seized New Netherland from the Dutch (renamed New York).

• French and Indian Wars:

  • England and France fought for control over North America.

  • These conflicts would later escalate into the Seven Years’ War (1754-1763).

3. The Atlantic World: A Global Exchange

The growing European presence in the Americas transformed the world.

• Columbian Exchange effects continued:

  • New foods (corn, potatoes) boosted European populations.

  • Disease (smallpox, measles) continued devastating Indigenous peoples.

• African Slavery Expanded:

  • The demand for plantation labor increased reliance on enslaved Africans.

Big Idea:

Colonization led to violent conflicts with Indigenous peoples, European rivalries, and lasting global impacts through the Atlantic trade system.

Chapter 3: Colonial America

3.1 | The Chesapeake and Southern Colonies

By the early 1600s, England began establishing permanent colonies in North America. The first major settlements emerged in the Chesapeake (Virginia & Maryland) and the Southern Colonies (Carolinas & Georgia).

1. The Founding of Jamestown (1607)

• First permanent English colony in North America.

• Funded by the Virginia Company (a joint-stock company).

• Early struggles:

  • Settlers unprepared for survival (focused on gold, not farming).

  • Starvation and disease killed many (the “Starving Time” of 1609-1610).

  • Help from Powhatan Confederacy (temporarily), but conflicts followed.

Tobacco Saves Jamestown

• John Rolfe introduced tobacco, which became a cash crop.

• Tobacco demanded large plantations, leading to indentured servitude and eventually slavery.

2. Labor Systems: Indentured Servants to Slavery

• Indentured Servants:

  • Poor Europeans worked for 4-7 years in exchange for passage to the New World.

  • Many died before gaining freedom.

• Headright System:

  • Wealthy settlers got 50 acres for each laborer they brought over.

• Transition to African Slavery:

  • Bacon’s Rebellion (1676) showed tensions between poor farmers & the elite.

  • Planters shifted to enslaved Africans for a more controlled labor force.

3. The Southern Colonies: Maryland, the Carolinas, and Georgia

• Maryland (1632):

  • Founded by Lord Baltimore as a Catholic haven.

  • Passed the Act of Toleration (1649), granting religious freedom to all Christians.

• The Carolinas (1663):

  • North Carolina: Small farms, less reliance on slavery.

  • South Carolina: Large rice & indigo plantations, heavily dependent on African slavery.

• Georgia (1733):

  • Founded by James Oglethorpe as a buffer colony against Spanish Florida.

  • Initially banned slavery but later adopted plantation systems.

Big Idea:

The Chesapeake and Southern Colonies depended on plantation economies, forced labor, and cash crops (tobacco, rice, indigo), leading to social hierarchies and slavery expansion.

3.2 | The New England Colonies

While the Chesapeake and Southern Colonies were built on cash crops and slavery, the New England Colonies (Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, and New Hampshire) were founded for religious reasons, small-scale farming, and trade.

1. Pilgrims and the Plymouth Colony (1620)

• Pilgrims (Separatists): Wanted to break away from the Church of England.

• Sailed on the Mayflower and signed the Mayflower Compact:

  • First example of self-government in the colonies.

  • Agreed to make decisions based on majority rule.

• Harsh winters killed nearly half, but Squanto & Wampanoag helped them survive.

2. Puritans and the Massachusetts Bay Colony (1630)

• Puritans: Wanted to purify the Church of England, not break away.

• Led by John Winthrop, who envisioned a "City Upon a Hill" (a religious example for the world).

• Strict religious society with little tolerance for dissent.

3. Dissenters and the Founding of Other Colonies

Not everyone agreed with Puritan rule, leading to new colonies:

• Rhode Island (Roger Williams, 1636):

  • Believed in separation of church and state and religious tolerance.

  • Welcomed all faiths, including Jews and Quakers.

• Connecticut (Thomas Hooker, 1636):

  • Wanted more democratic government.

  • Created the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, the first written constitution in America.

• New Hampshire:

  • Originally part of Massachusetts, became its own colony in 1679.

4. Society and Economy in New England

• Economy:

  • Small-scale farming, fishing, shipbuilding, and trade (not plantations).

  • The Atlantic Trade linked New England with Africa, the Caribbean, and England.

• Education:

  • Harvard (1636) was founded to train ministers.

  • Towns with 50+ families required a school (early focus on literacy).

5. Conflict with Native Americans

• Pequot War (1636-1638): New England settlers wiped out the Pequot tribe.

• King Philip’s War (1675-1676):

  • Metacom (King Philip) led a major Native resistance against Puritan expansion.

  • Deadliest war in colonial New England.

  • English victory led to the end of major Native resistance in the region.

Big Idea:

The New England Colonies were shaped by religion, self-government, and a diverse economy, but their strict religious rule and expansion led to conflict and new colonies.

3.3 | The Middle Colonies

The Middle Colonies (New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware) were known for their religious diversity, economic opportunities, and fertile land. Unlike the strict Puritan New England or the slave-dependent Southern Colonies, the Middle Colonies had a mix of cultures, economies, and government styles.

1. New York (Originally New Netherland, 1624 → New York, 1664)

• Originally settled by the Dutch (New Netherland), focused on trade and commerce.

• Taken over by the English in 1664, renamed New York.

• Ethnically diverse (Dutch, English, Africans, Germans, etc.).

2. Pennsylvania (1681) – The "Holy Experiment"

• Founded by William Penn, a Quaker, as a religious refuge.

• Quaker beliefs:

  • Religious tolerance (welcomed many faiths).

  • Equality (even for women and Native Americans).

  • Pacifism (rejected violence, made peace with Natives).

• Economy: Wheat, corn, trade, and skilled artisans → Known as the "Breadbasket Colony."

3. New Jersey & Delaware

• New Jersey: Split from New York, attracted small farmers, craftsmen, and traders.

• Delaware: Originally part of Pennsylvania, became a separate colony in 1704.

4. Economy and Society in the Middle Colonies

• Diverse economy:

  • Farming (wheat, oats, corn) → Major food producer for the colonies.

  • Trade and shipbuilding (especially in New York and Philadelphia).

• Diverse society:

  • Mix of Dutch, English, Scots-Irish, Germans, and Africans.

  • More religious tolerance than New England.

  • Slavery existed but was less central than in the South.

Big Idea:

The Middle Colonies were the most diverse and tolerant of all the colonies, with strong economies based on farming and trade.

3.4 | Colonial Society and Culture

By the early 1700s, the British colonies had distinct social structures, economies, and cultures, but they also shared common experiences that shaped American identity.

1. Social Structure in the Colonies

Colonial society was divided into rigid social classes based on wealth, race, and occupation:

• New England:

  • Society centered on church, town meetings, and education.

  • Most people were small farmers, artisans, or merchants.

  • Few enslaved people due to economy based on trade, not plantations.

• Middle Colonies:

  • Most diverse society (mix of ethnic and religious groups).

  • Economy relied on farming, trade, and skilled labor.

  • Some slavery, but not as widespread as in the South.

• Southern Colonies:

  • Plantation economy led to strict social hierarchy.

  • Wealthy planters controlled land, government, and economy.

  • Indentured servants and enslaved Africans were the lowest class.

2. The Role of Women

• Women had few legal rights (could not vote, hold office, or own property if married).

• Expected to focus on household duties, raising children, and supporting their husbands.

• In some cases, widows and unmarried women had more economic freedom.

3. Religion and the First Great Awakening (1730s-1740s)

• Colonial religion was diverse:

  • Puritans in New England (strict, church-centered life).

  • Quakers in Pennsylvania (religious tolerance).

  • Anglicans (Church of England) in the South.

• The First Great Awakening was a religious revival movement:

  • Led by Jonathan Edwards and George Whitefield.

  • Focused on emotional sermons and personal religious experience.

  • Challenged traditional church authority, leading to new denominations.

4. Education in the Colonies

• New England:

  • Most educated region (emphasis on literacy for Bible reading).

  • Towns with 50+ families required schools.

  • Harvard (1636) and Yale (1701) founded for religious education.

• Middle Colonies & South:

  • Fewer schools, education mostly private or church-based.

  • Wealthy planters hired private tutors for children.

5. Print Culture and the Spread of Ideas

• Newspapers, pamphlets, and books spread political and philosophical ideas.

• Benjamin Franklin became famous for Poor Richard’s Almanack, newspapers, and scientific contributions.

Big Idea:

By the mid-1700s, colonial society had class divisions, religious movements, and early education systems, all shaping a distinct American culture.

3.5 | Colonial Government

By the 1700s, the American colonies had developed their own governments, influenced by British traditions but with increasing local control. These governments laid the foundation for American democracy but still had limits on participation.

1. English Influence on Colonial Government

The colonies were ruled by England, but British political traditions shaped their governments:

• Magna Carta (1215): Limited the king’s power, gave rights to nobles.

• English Bill of Rights (1689): Guaranteed free elections, fair trials, and no cruel punishment.

• Common Law: Legal system based on precedents (past rulings) rather than strict laws.

These ideas influenced how the colonies ran their own governments.

2. Colonial Government Structure

Each colony had a governor, legislature, and local courts, but the level of self-rule varied:

• Royal Colonies (most colonies):

  • Governors appointed by the king.

  • Had elected assemblies, but governors had veto power.

• Proprietary Colonies (e.g., Pennsylvania, Maryland):

  • Controlled by individual proprietors with royal permission.

  • Still had elected legislatures.

• Charter Colonies (e.g., Rhode Island, Connecticut):

  • Self-governing with elected governors and legislatures.

3. The Role of Colonial Assemblies

• Colonial legislatures made local laws and controlled taxes.

• The most powerful was the Virginia House of Burgesses (1619), the first representative assembly in America.

• Town Meetings in New England:

  • Allowed citizens to vote directly on local issues.

  • Early example of direct democracy.

4. The Policy of Salutary Neglect (1607–1763)

• England allowed the colonies to govern themselves as long as they remained profitable.

• This lack of strict control led to independent political traditions.

• Colonists got used to self-rule, which later fueled resistance to British interference.

5. Conflicts with Britain

• Zenger Trial (1735):

  • John Peter Zenger, a newspaper printer, was arrested for criticizing the governor.

  • His acquittal established freedom of the press.

• Tensions grew as Britain started enforcing stricter laws in the mid-1700s.

Big Idea:

The colonies developed democratic traditions through local assemblies and self-government, but they were still under British rule. The policy of salutary neglect allowed them to govern freely, setting the stage for future conflicts with Britain.

3.6 | The Atlantic Slave Trade

By the 1700s, the Atlantic Slave Trade was central to the colonial economy, especially in the Southern Colonies. Millions of Africans were forcibly taken to the Americas, shaping social, economic, and political structures for centuries.

1. The Triangular Trade

The Atlantic Slave Trade was part of a larger trade system called the Triangular Trade, which had three major routes:

1. Europe to Africa → Manufactured goods (guns, textiles, rum) sent to African rulers in exchange for enslaved people.

2. Africa to the Americas ("Middle Passage") → Enslaved Africans were transported under horrific conditions.

3. Americas to Europe → Raw materials (sugar, tobacco, cotton) were shipped to Europe, fueling more trade.

This system enriched European and colonial economies while devastating African communities.

2. The Middle Passage

• The Middle Passage was the brutal voyage across the Atlantic endured by enslaved Africans.

• Conditions:

  • Crammed into tight spaces, chained together.

  • Little food or water, disease spread rapidly.

  • Many died from malnutrition, disease, or suicide.

• Estimated 12-15 million Africans were forcibly transported, with millions more dying during capture and transport.

3. Slavery in the Colonies

• New England & Middle Colonies:

  • Fewer enslaved people, economy focused on trade and small farms.

  • Some worked as servants, dock workers, or skilled artisans.

• Southern Colonies:

  • Plantation system relied on forced labor.

  • Cash crops (tobacco, rice, indigo) required large enslaved workforces.

  • Strict slave codes controlled every aspect of enslaved people's lives.

4. The Impact of the Slave Trade

• On Africa:

  • Depopulated regions and destroyed societies.

  • Increased warfare among African kingdoms.

• On the Colonies:

  • Created a racial hierarchy, leading to systematic racism.

  • Strengthened the Southern economy but made it dependent on slavery.

• On the Global Economy:

  • Fueled European and American wealth, especially through cash crops like sugar and cotton.

Big Idea:

The Atlantic Slave Trade was a key part of the colonial economy, but it caused immense human suffering and shaped the social and racial structures of the Americas for centuries.

3.7 | The Growth of Cities and Trade

By the early 1700s, trade and commerce expanded rapidly in the colonies, leading to the growth of major port cities and the rise of a merchant class. Urban centers became hubs of economic, cultural, and political activity.

1. Major Colonial Cities

Colonial cities grew along coastal trade routes and navigable rivers, becoming economic centers:

• Boston (New England) – Shipbuilding, fishing, and trade.

• New York City (Middle Colonies) – A major port, center of commerce and diverse populations.

• Philadelphia (Middle Colonies) – Largest city, key for trade and manufacturing.

• Charleston (Southern Colonies) – Exported rice and indigo, heavily relied on slavery.

Most cities had growing populations, newspapers, and marketplaces, helping spread new ideas.

2. Trade and Economic Growth

• Mercantilism:

  • Britain controlled colonial trade to benefit the mother country.

  • Navigation Acts (1651-1673) required colonists to only trade with England.

• Colonial Exports:

  • New England: Lumber, fish, rum, ships.

  • Middle Colonies: Wheat, livestock, iron.

  • Southern Colonies: Tobacco, rice, indigo.

• Imports: Colonists bought manufactured goods (clothing, tools, guns) from Britain.

3. Social Changes in Cities

• A new merchant class emerged, gaining wealth through trade.

• Apprenticeship system trained young workers in skilled trades.

• Growing gap between rich and poor:

  • Wealthy merchants lived in luxury homes.

  • Poor laborers and enslaved people had harsh conditions.

4. Urban Life and Culture

• Cities became centers of newspapers, political discussion, and social movements.

• Taverns and coffeehouses were popular meeting spots for merchants and intellectuals.

• Poor sanitation led to disease outbreaks, limiting urban growth.

Big Idea:

The growth of trade and port cities helped create a diverse economy and urban culture. However, British trade restrictions and social inequalities would later fuel colonial resistance.

3.8 | Conflict in the Colonies

As colonial economies and populations expanded, tensions grew between the colonists, Native Americans, and the British government. By the mid-1700s, these conflicts set the stage for future rebellion.

1. Conflict with Native Americans

• Bacon’s Rebellion (1676):

  • Nathaniel Bacon led a rebellion against Governor Berkeley in Virginia.

  • Farmers were angry at Native American attacks and British restrictions on land expansion.

  • Rebellion failed, but it weakened indentured servitude and increased slavery.

• King Philip’s War (1675–1676):

  • Wampanoag leader Metacom (King Philip) fought against New England settlers.

  • Native resistance was crushed, leading to the loss of Native power in New England.

2. British-Colonial Tensions

• Navigation Acts (1651–1673):

  • Restricted colonial trade to only benefit Britain.

  • Many colonists smuggled goods to avoid British control.

• Dominion of New England (1686):

  • Britain revoked charters and merged colonies into one unit.

  • Governor Andros ruled harshly, leading to resistance.

  • The Glorious Revolution (1688) ended this system, restoring self-rule.

• French and Indian War (1754–1763):

  • Britain and France fought for control over North America.

  • War left Britain in debt, leading to higher taxes on the colonies.

3. Growing Colonial Identity

• Colonists started seeing themselves as different from Britain.

• Newspapers and town meetings spread anti-British sentiment.

• More self-government led to a stronger desire for independence.

Big Idea:

Conflicts with Native Americans, British policies, and economic restrictions created tensions that would later lead to colonial resistance and revolution.