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The Apex of Global Empire Building

Motives of Imperialism

By the 19th Century, Empires differed from empires earlier on in history. This was called Imperialism. It referred to the domination of overseas territories by

Europeans
United States
Japan

Domination was won over by

trade
investment
business activities
force of arms(sometimes)

This all enabled imperial powers to benefit and profit from colonies without being directly involved.

During the 2nd half of the 19th century(1800’s), Many Europeans came to believe that imperial expansion and colonial domination are necessary for the survival of their states and nations. Sometimes, this was also used to justify personal gain, like the case of Cecil John Rhodes, who built a massive fortune by exploiting african laborers in diamond mines.

Economic Motives of Imperialism

Resource Acquisition: Need for raw materials (rubber, oil, minerals) for industrialization
Market Expansion: Desire to find new markets for manufactured goods
Profit Maximization: Establishing monopolies and exploiting local labor for cheaper production costs
Investment Opportunities: Seeking profitable ventures in colonized regions

Geopolitical Motives of Imperialism

National Security: Expanding territory to enhance military strength and protect interests
Strategic Locations: Control of key ports and trade routes for economic and military advantages
Nationalism: Competition among nations to assert dominance and prestige on the global stage
Rivalries: Conflicts arising from the scramble for territory and resources among imperial powers

Cultural Justifications of Imperialism

Belief in Superiority: The idea that Western civilization was superior and had a duty to civilize others
"White Man's Burden": The notion that it was the responsibility of Western nations to uplift colonized peoples
Promotion of Western Values: Spreading Christianity, education, and Western cultural norms
- Legal Systems
- Modes of Dress
- Expected Gender Relationships
- Emphasis on Market Consumerism
Rationalization of Exploitation: Using cultural narratives to justify the often brutal realities of imperialism

Tools Of Empire

One of the main reason that imperialism was able to become a success was because of industrial technologies.

Military Technologies

Rifles and Minié Ball: The Minié ball was a conical bullet that expanded upon firing, allowing for greater accuracy and range. This made traditional tactics of mass infantry charges much deadlier.
Machine Guns: The Gatling gun, with its rotating barrels, could fire hundreds of rounds per minute. This drastically changed battlefield strategies, leading to trench warfare in later conflicts.
Ironclad Ships: The first ironclads, like the USS Monitor and CSS Virginia, were pivotal during the American Civil War. They marked the end of wooden warships and introduced armored naval combat.
Artillery: Innovations like the rifled cannon allowed for greater range and accuracy. The use of explosive shells instead of solid shot increased lethality on the battlefield.
Telegraph: The telegraph allowed commanders to communicate orders and intelligence almost instantaneously, which was crucial for coordinating troop movements and strategies.

Communications Technologies

Telegraph: This technology was a game-changer for both military and civilian life. It enabled rapid communication, which was vital during wars like the Crimean War and the American Civil War.
Signal Flags: Used extensively by navies, signal flags allowed ships to communicate over long distances without the need for radio. This was especially important before the telegraph became widespread.
Railway Communication: Railroads not only transported troops but also served as a means of communication. Dispatchers could relay messages quickly along the rail lines, enhancing coordination.

Medical Technologies

Anesthesia: The introduction of ether and chloroform allowed for painless surgeries, which was a huge advancement in medical care. Surgeons could perform more complex procedures without the patient suffering.
Antiseptics: Joseph Lister's work on antiseptic techniques in the 1860s drastically reduced post-surgical infections. This was a major breakthrough in surgical practices.
Field Hospitals: During the Crimean War, Florence Nightingale established organized field hospitals, improving sanitation and care for wounded soldiers, which set the standard for modern nursing.
Ambulance Services: The establishment of dedicated ambulance services during the 19th century allowed for quicker transport of the injured, significantly improving survival rates.

Transportation Technologies

Steamships: Steam-powered ships could travel faster and more reliably than sailing ships, which was crucial for both military logistics and global trade.
Railroads: The expansion of rail networks allowed for the rapid movement of troops and supplies. The ability to transport large numbers of soldiers quickly changed the dynamics of warfare.
Canals: The Suez Canal, completed in 1869, connected the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea, drastically reducing travel time for ships between Europe and Asia, boosting trade and imperialism.

European Imperialism

British Rule of India

The British Empire in South and Southeast Asia started with India. The English East India Company was the main organization that allowed the British to have a string hold on India. With permission from the Mughal Empire, they built fortified trading posts on the coasts, where they got goods to sell in India. These merchants mainly traded for

Pepper
Cotton
Chinese silk and porcelain
Fine spices from SE Asia

After the death of Aurangzeb, the Mughal emperor, the empire declined to a small section of Delhi. There were many reasons for this including:

Diplomacy
Military campaigns
Doctrine of Lapse

The doctrine of lapse said that if an Indian King was unable to produce a biological male heir to the throne, the British could take that territory. Many Indians hated this policy because it took away their autonomy.

This rule was often times upsetting to the Hindu and Muslim religious traditions and frequently cut off any political ambitions. Discontent reached all the way to the British Army, where sepoys, Indian soldiers in the British Army, rebelled. The rebellion eventually turned into a brutal war for independence.

All of this war and rebellion was run by the East India Company, and in 1858, they were abolished in favor of the British viceroy of India. However, some Indians were able to have low bureaucratic positions in the new government. The changes affected India and Ceylon(Sri Lanka) immensely. They cleared forests, restructured land holdings, and cultivated new crops such as:

Tea
Coffee
Opium

By clearing land, they allowed India to industrialize. One key difference was the minimal conversion efforts. However they still forced many European ideals onto India and limited if not eliminated traditions:

Sati
Infanticide
Slavery

Central and Southeast Asia

As the British focused on colonizing India and controlling it, many other European Powers were competing for territorial gain in Central and SE Asia.

French and Russian strategists sought to undermine British power and colonize India. However, after the fall of Napoleon, France’s efforts were delayed, with Russia being the only challenger. During this time, with the Ottoman Empire and Qing China weakened by conflicts, the Russians took:

Tashkent
Bokhara
Samarkand

All of this territory occupied the silk road and threatened British India. The rest of the imperialism period has been called the Great Game.

The Great Game saw British and Russian explorers go into unexplored parts of Central Asia, so they can prepare for the war in India. This competition eventually led to the further imperialism in SE Asia. All of the island nations were taken over by Dutch, British, and French forces.

The British were one of the nations that extremely focused on the Great Game. As early as the 1820’s, conflict with Burmese kings was established. By the 1880’s, colonial authority had been established.

Even in their failures to establish a presence in India, France was able to establish teh colonies of French Indochina, which included:

Vietnam
Cambodia
Laos

Unlike their rivals, they imposed Christianity(Catholic) onto their subjects. However, they also enforced European style education like the English. By the end of the century all of SE Asia came under imperial rule except the Siam Kingdom(Thailand), which acted as a buffer state.

Africa

The race to colonize Africa has often been characterized as a scramble for Africa.

Europeans didn’t know much about the huge and diverse African interior. Eventually, a series of explorers who went on to write and speak about their travels stimulated interest. The most well known was Dr. David Livingstone, who made three well documented trips to

explore unknown territories
promote conversion to Christianity

Because of his travels, Europeans and Americans began to see a profitable empire in Africa. One of these people was Leopold II, King of Belgium. Because Belgium was small, he saw Africa as a way to expand his empire and gain fame. He noticed the abundance of raw materials including

rubber
gems

and set up a colony called the Congo Free State(Modern DRC). His greed eventually led to a violent regime. In 1908, he was stripped of power and that power was given to the Belgian Congo.

Long before the mass colonization of Africa, the Portuguese and Dutch had a presence with the natives due to their joint stock companies. Eventually people moved to places beyond company controlled territory to farm and ranch.

Boers(Farmers)
Afrikaners(Africans)
Other settlers
- Dutch
- Germans
- French Protestants

All of these people had faced persecution in Europe, so they came to Africa to escape. BY spreading out, they encroached on lands occupied by Africans who asked for compensation:

Khoikhoi
- warfare
- enslavement
- smallpox epidemics
Xhosa
- warfare
  - Internal Rebellions

All of the factors above led to the decline and extinction of these native Africans.

When the British took over from the Dutch, Afrikaners began to push inward, because British rule disrupted their society. Eventually because British miners and prospectors flocked to Afrikaner states, the South African(Boer) War took place. Even though the British had superior tech, the Afrikaners had knowledge of the terrain and carried out extensive guerrilla warfare, forcing the Britain to mobilize 500,000 men. In order to break the opponent’s will, they imprisoned women and children in concentration camps.

In 1882, a British army occupied Egypt because they wanted to protect:

Financial Interests
Strategic Interests
Suez Canal

The justification for this opposition was stabilizing the country from military rebellion. This angered not only the Egyptians, but other European nations. To prevent war, 14 nations met in Germany for the Berlin West Africa Conference. Even though half of the countries present didn’t have any interest in Africa, they were invited as impartial observers. The conference resulted into the division of Africa into occupied territories:

In the wake of these new partitions, there were many problems in terms of colonial occupation. The earliest approach came from the Germans, who sent the German Colonial Society for German Southwest Africa. Because of the many problems that came with it, governments switched to:

Direct Rule
- Mostly seen in French Colonies
  - Centralized Control: European powers, like Britain and France, took direct control of their colonies. They sent their own officials to govern, which meant that local leaders were often replaced or sidelined.
  - Assimilation Policies: The idea was to make colonized people adopt European ways of life. This included language, education, and legal systems, often ignoring or suppressing local traditions and cultures.
  - Military Presence: To maintain control and enforce laws, colonial powers kept a strong military presence. This was crucial for quelling any uprisings or resistance from the local population.
  - Administrative Structure: A bureaucratic system was established, with European administrators overseeing various aspects of governance. This led to a more uniform approach across different colonies, but it often created a disconnect between the rulers and the local populace.
Indirect Rule
- Mostly seen in British Colonies
  - Local Leaders: In contrast, indirect rule allowed local rulers to keep their positions of authority. European powers would work through these leaders, who acted as intermediaries between the colonial government and the local people.
  - Cultural Preservation: This approach aimed to respect and preserve local customs and governance structures. It was seen as a way to maintain stability and reduce resistance by allowing some degree of local autonomy.
  - Cost-Effective: Indirect rule was often cheaper for colonial powers. By using existing local leaders and structures, they didn’t have to invest as much in establishing a new administrative system.
  - Limited European Presence: There were fewer European officials in the colonies, as local leaders managed daily affairs. This sometimes led to a more cooperative relationship between the colonizers and the colonized, although it still reinforced colonial authority.

Both systems shaped the political and social dynamics in Africa in significant ways.

Pacific Ocean

European imperialism in this area took many different forms. In Australia and New Zealand, Europeans established settler colonies and dominant political institutions. In Pacific islands, many nations used them for profit, rather than full colonies.

The colony of Australia was originally used for housing prisoners. Eventually, the discovery of gold lured more and more people towards the colony. The island of New Zealand was first visited by Europeans while hunting

Whales
Seals

Soon, the island’s fertile soil and abundant timbre led to people coming to the island. This mas migration severely affected the indigenous aboriginal and Maori population. This migration also led to many conflicts between natives and settlers. Because the indigenous people were nomads, the British declared it terra nullius, meaning “land belonged to no one”. Then, through brutal military campaigns, they were able to evict the natives from desirable lands. A similar process occurred in New Zealand. in 1840, the Maori leaders were encouraged by British liaisons to sign the Treaty of Waitangi. Many of the leaders who signed it were lied to about keeping their sovereignty.

Economic Exploitation: The Pacific islands were rich in resources, and European powers established plantations for crops like sugar and coconut, which were exported for profit. This often disrupted local economies and traditional ways of life.
Cultural Impact: Colonization brought significant cultural changes, as European customs, languages, and religions were introduced, sometimes at the expense of indigenous traditions.
Resistance: Indigenous populations often resisted colonization, leading to conflicts and uprisings. The struggle for sovereignty and recognition of rights continues to be a significant issue in many Pacific Island nations today.

US Imperialism

1. Causes & Motivations in Latin America

Economic: U.S. business interests in sugar, fruit, and trade routes.
Political: The U.S. wanted to protect its influence from European powers.
Military: Strategic naval bases and control over the Panama Canal.
Ideological: The Monroe Doctrine (1823) → Declared Latin America as a U.S. sphere of influence.

2. Key Events in Latin America

Hawaiian Annexation (1898)

Spanish-American War (1898)

Causes:
- Cuban independence movement against Spain.
- Yellow Journalism (exaggerated reporting by Hearst & Pulitzer).
- USS Maine explosion (blamed on Spain, led to war).
Outcome:
- Treaty of Paris (1898) → U.S. gained Puerto Rico and influence over Cuba.
- U.S. established Guantanamo Bay naval base in Cuba.

Platt Amendment (1901)

Gave the U.S. control over Cuban foreign policy and allowed U.S. military intervention.

Panama Canal (1904-1914)

U.S. supported Panamanian independence from Colombia (1903).
Built the Panama Canal, a crucial shortcut between the Atlantic & Pacific Oceans.
U.S. maintained control over the Canal Zone until 1999.

Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine (1904)

Stated the U.S. had the right to intervene in Latin American nations to maintain stability.
Justified U.S. military interventions, known as the Banana Wars (Nicaragua, Dominican Republic, Haiti).

3. Causes & Motivations in the Pacific

Economic: Desire for Asian markets (China, Japan) and control over resources (sugar, rubber).
Military: Need for naval bases to project power in the Pacific.
Political: Competition with European and Japanese empires.
Ideological: Spread of Western culture and the idea of the "White Man’s Burden."

4. Key Events in the Pacific

Hawaiian Annexation (1898)

U.S. acquired Pearl Harbor, strengthening its military position in the Pacific.

Spanish-American War (1898) & Philippines

Outcome: U.S. gained Guam and the Philippines.

Philippine-American War (1899-1902)

Filipino resistance under Emilio Aguinaldo against U.S. rule.
Over 200,000 Filipino civilians died due to conflict, famine, and disease.
U.S. imposed direct colonial rule over the Philippines until 1946.

Open Door Policy (1899-1900)

U.S. declared China should remain open to trade for all nations, preventing European monopolies.
U.S. participated in suppressing the Boxer Rebellion (1900), an anti-foreign uprising in China.

Effects & Consequences of Imperialism

Short Term Effects

1. Political Effects

Colonial Rule Established: Western powers took direct control over regions (e.g., British Raj in India, U.S. rule in the Philippines).
Redrawing of Borders: Arbitrary boundaries divided ethnic and cultural groups (e.g., Scramble for Africa).

2. Economic Effects

Resource Exploitation: Colonies supplied raw materials for Western industries (e.g., rubber from the Congo, sugar from the Caribbean).
Forced Cash-Crop Economies: Local populations were pushed to grow cash crops, leading to food shortages and famines (e.g., Bengal Famine).
Infrastructure Development: Railroads, telegraphs, and ports were built, primarily for imperial benefit (e.g., Suez Canal).

3. Social & Cultural Effects

Suppression of Local Cultures: Western education, languages, and religions replaced indigenous traditions.
Social Hierarchies & Discrimination: Racial segregation and forced labor systems were established (e.g., apartheid in South Africa).
Health Improvements & Population Growth: Western medicine reduced disease-related deaths, but overpopulation created new issues.

4. Military & Strategic Effects

Conflicts & Wars: Resistance movements and imperial wars erupted (e.g., Philippine-American War, Zulu Wars).
Colonial Militarization: Native populations were conscripted into imperial armies (e.g., African and Indian soldiers in World War I).

U.S. continued interventions in Latin America (e.g., Cold War proxy wars).
The Philippines gained independence in 1946, but tensions continued.
The U.S. became a global superpower with influence in both hemispheres.

Long Term Effects