Lifespan Development CH.3

Language Understanding in Children

• Understanding Miscommunication:

  • Grosse et al. (2010) demonstrated that children make linguistic repairs even when they receive a desired object if miscommunication occurs (e.g., incorrect naming or delays).

  • This indicates that children use language to express their intent to be understood, not just for material gain.

Temperament

• Definition:

  • Temperament refers to innate characteristics of infants like mood, activity levels, and reactivity, distinguishable shortly after birth.

• Research Findings:

  • Chess and Thomas (1996) conducted the New York Longitudinal Study, assessing 141 children across nine dimensions of temperament:

    • Activity level

    • Rhythmicity (biological regularity)

    • Approach/Withdrawal to new experiences

    • Adaptability

    • Intensity of reactions

    • Threshold of responsiveness

    • Mood quality

    • Distractibility

    • Attention span

• Temperament Types:

  • Easy Child (40%): Adapts easily, calm, easily soothed, positive mood.

  • Difficult Child (10%): Negative reactions to new environments, struggles to adapt, frequent crying.

  • Slow-to-Warm-Up Child (15%): Low activity, slow to adapt, often negative in mood.

Goodness-of-Fit

• Concept:

  • Refers to how well a caregiver’s style matches the child’s temperament.

  • High goodness-of-fit promotes better communication and interaction outcomes in parenting.

• Parenting Implications:

  • Parents who align responses to a child's temperament enhance adaptive functioning. For instance, adventurous children thrive with stimulating activities that match their nature.

• Impact of Child Temperament on Parenting:

  • Easy children may boost parents' confidence, while difficult children may lead to stress or punitive parenting styles.

Personality Development

• Definitions:

  • Temperament remains relatively stable over time, while personality involves dynamic interactions between biological and experiential factors.

  • Personality includes emotional control, self-concept, motivation, values, and goals.

• Growth Dynamics:

  • Personality emerges from temperamental traits adapted through experiences, establishing a rich, nuanced self as the child matures.

Infant Emotions

• Initial Emotional Responses:

  • Birth: Infants exhibit attraction (to comfort) and withdrawal (from discomfort).

  • Social smiling begins around 2 months, evolving into laughter by 3-5 months, and more complex emotions (fear, sadness, anger) by 6-8 months.

• Categories of Emotions:

  • Basic Emotions: Interest, happiness, anger, fear, surprise, sadness, disgust.

  • Self-Conscious Emotions: Include guilt, shame, pride, and envy, developing alongside self-concept and sociocultural influences.

• Social Referencing:

  • The process by which infants look to caregivers to determine how to respond in uncertain situations. Empirical studies demonstrate the importance of emotional cues from caregivers in promoting exploratory behavior.

Self-Regulation

• Development:

  • Young infants depend on caregivers for emotional regulation; as they mature, self-regulation skills improve with increased cognitive ability in managing emotional states.

Formation of Attachments

• Attachment Definition:

  • A close bond with caregivers providing security; essential for social and emotional development.

• Theoretical Background:

  • Freud posits attachment arises through oral gratification from caregivers. Harlow's experiments highlight contact comfort, rather than nourishment alone, is critical for attachment.

• Bowlby’s Attachment Theory:

  • Defines attachment as a crucial bond necessary for normal development, emphasizing a secure base model for exploration. Healthy attachments depend on caregivers being responsive and engaging positively with children.

Attachment Styles (Ainsworth's Strange Situation)

• Styles of Attachment:

  • Secure Attachment: Exploratory when parent present, distressed when absent.

  • Ambivalent Attachment: Clingy and distressed, but ambivalent about comfort upon return.

  • Avoidant Attachment: Ignores caregiver, lacks emotion during reunion.

  • Disorganized/Disoriented Attachment: Conflicted and inconsistent behaviors.

Cultural Influences on Attachment

• Cultural differences affect attachment styles, with specific parenting styles promoting various attachment representations (e.g., independence in German culture).

Consistency in Caregiver Relationships

• High rates of caregiver turnover or inadequate care can hinder secure attachment formation. Children in such environments might still form attachments later but with increased emotional challenges.

Issues of Social Deprivation

• Neglect correlates with severe developmental problems, including attachment disorders. Non-organic failure to thrive indicates growth and development issues without medical causes.

• Reactive Attachment Disorder: Results from harsh caregiving environments; symptoms include developmental delays and inappropriate attachment behaviors.

Resiliency and Adaptation

• Resiliency may be rooted in temperament and strengthened by positive support systems that enable parenting and child adaptability. Evidence suggests targeted caregiver training can foster secure attachments.

Erikson’s Stages of Development

• Trust vs. Mistrust: Establishing foundational trust through consistent caregiving during infancy.

  • Recognizing the importance of responsive caregiving while addressing potential failures in establishing trust.

Measuring Development

• Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development: Assess cognitive, language, social-emotional, motor, and adaptive behaviors from 1-42 months, aiding early interventions for identified developmental delays.

Impact of COVID-19 on Development

• Birth Rate Decrease: Notable decline in U.S. births in 2020 reflects pandemic impact. Lower fertility rates may affect future economic and labor growth.

• Language Development Concerns: Masks hinder visual communication cues crucial for language acquisition. Experiencing limited socialization during COVID-19 may have negatively impacted children's language skills.