Copy of Reviewer - AMELIORATE_PHYSCI

PHYSICAL SCIENCE FINAL EXAMINATION OVERVIEW

1. ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF ELEMENTS IN THE UNIVERSE

• Theories on the formation of the universe

  • Phases of the Big Bang theory

• Nucleosynthesis and Primordial elements

  • Cosmic origin of elements

  • Timeline of Atomic Theory

• Atomic Identity

  • Atoms, Ions, Isotopes

• Nuclear reactions and equations

2. CHEMICAL BONDS, LEDS, AND MOLECULAR POLARITY

• Classification of matter

• Notable scientists

• Chemical bonding

  • Lewis Electron Dot Structure (LEDS)

  • Ionic Bonds

  • Covalent Bonds

  • Molecular Polarity

3. INTERMOLECULAR FORCES

• Intramolecular Forces

• Intermolecular Forces

  • Ion-Dipole forces

  • Dipole-Dipole forces

  • Hydrogen Bond

  • London Dispersion Forces

• Influence of IMFA in Substances

  • Melting and Boiling Points

  • Physical States of Matter

  • Viscosity

  • Adhesion and Cohesion

  • Liquid Surface Tension

  • Liquid Capillary Action

  • Vapor Pressure

  • Solubility

  • Amorphous and Crystalline Solids

4. BIOMOLECULES

• Carbon: The Central Atom

• Monomers and Polymers

• Dehydration Reaction

• Hydrolysis Process

• Biomolecules

• Proteins

  • Protein Structure

  • Functions of Proteins

• Carbohydrates

  • Other Key Features

  • Monosaccharides

  • Disaccharides

  • Polysaccharides

• Nucleic Acids

  • Nucleic Acid Structure

  • Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)

  • Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)

  • Functions of Nucleic Acids

• Lipids

  • Ester Linkage

  • Lipid Structure

  • Functions of Lipids

5. COLLISION THEORY AND CHEMICAL REACTIONS

• Chemical Change

• Chemical Reaction

  • Rates of Chemical Reaction

• Collision Theory

  • Principle 1: Reactants must be in proper orientation

  • Principle 2: Molecules must possess minimum energy

• Factors Affecting the Rate of Chemical Reactions

  • Temperature

  • Concentration

  • Pressure (for gases)

  • Surface Area (for solids)

  • Use of Catalysts

LESSON 1: ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF ELEMENTS IN THE UNIVERSE

01 THEORIES ON THE FORMATION OF THE UNIVERSE

• Creation Theory: Supernatural beings create the universe.

• Multiverse Theory: Our universe is one of many with unique characteristics.

• Oscillating Theory: Infinite cycles of expansion and contraction.

• Steady State Theory: Universe exists in a constant state.

• Big Bang Theory: Originated from a singularity; expansion rather than explosion.

  • Edwin Hubble and Georges Lemaitre

  • Observations: Milky Way is not the only galaxy; galaxies move away from each other.

1.1 PHASES OF THE BIG BANG THEORY

1. Singularity

   • Originated from a point of infinite density and temperature.

2. Big Bang and Inflation

   • Expansion of the singularity; formation of quarks and gluons.

3. Formation of Matter and Antimatter

   • Matter: Protons, Neutrons, Electrons; Antimatter: Antiproton, Antineutron, Positron.

4. Annihilation

   • Matter and antimatter collide, converting to energy.

5. Cooling Down of the Universe

   • Basic forces and fundamental particles form as universe expands.

6. Big Bang Nucleosynthesis

   • Formation of hydrogen and helium atomic nuclei.

7. Recombination

   • Formation of first neutral atoms after 380,000 years.

8. Dark Ages

   • Universe filled with neutral hydrogen gas, no light-emitting bodies.

9. Formation of Cosmic Bodies

   • First stars and galaxies formed from remaining matter.

02 NUCLEOSYNTHESIS AND PRIMORDIAL ELEMENTS

• Nucleosynthesis: Formation of atomic nuclei through nuclear fusion and fission.

• Cosmic origin of elements

  • Big Bang and Stellar Nucleosynthesis

• Types of Nucleosynthesis:

  • Examples of hydrogen, helium, lithium to uranium.

2.1 TIMELINE OF ATOMIC THEORY

• John Dalton (1803): Solid sphere model of the atom.

• J.J. Thomson (1897): Plum pudding model.

• Ernest Rutherford (1911): Gold foil experiment, nuclear model.

• Niels Bohr (1913): Electron shells model.

• James Chadwick (1932): Discovery of the neutron.

03 ATOMIC IDENTITY

3.1 ATOMS, IONS, ISOTOPES

• Ion: Atom or molecule with a charge due to electron loss/gain.

• Isotope: Atoms of the same element differing in neutrons.

3.2 ATOMIC IDENTITY

• Neutrality and computations for elements.

• Cations and Anions defined.

04 NUCLEAR REACTIONS AND EQUATIONS

• Nuclear reactions vs. chemical reactions.

• Types of nuclear reactions: alpha decay, beta decay, gamma radiation.

• Emission of particles in reactions.

LESSON 2: CHEMICAL BONDING AND POLARITY OF MOLECULES

01 CLASSIFICATION OF MATTER

• Matter: Pure substances or mixtures.

• Pure Substances: Elements or compounds.

• Mixtures: Homogeneous or heterogeneous.

02 NOTABLE SCIENTISTS

• Robert Boyle: Elements and atomism; Boyle’s law.

• Joseph Priestly: Discovered oxygen.

• John Dalton: Law of Multiple Proportions.

• Antoine Lavoisier: Conservation of mass stated.

03 CHEMICAL BONDING

• Formation of bonds involving electron sharing or transfer.

3.1 LEWIS ELECTRON DOT STRUCTURE (LEDS)

• Developed by Lewis to represent valence electrons.

• Octet Rule: Stability requires eight valence electrons; hydrogen exception.

3.2 IONIC BONDS

• Bonding: Transfer of electrons between metals and nonmetals.

  • Metal becomes cation; nonmetal becomes anion.

  • Examples illustrate the attraction in ionic compounds.

3.3 COVALENT BONDS

• Sharing of valence electrons between nonmetal atoms.

• Types of bonds: single, double, triple bonds.

3.4 MOLECULAR POLARITY

• Determined by electronegativity differences in covalent bonds.

4. INFLUENCE OF IMFA IN SUBSTANCES

• Strong intermolecular forces relate to boiling/melting points, viscosity, capillary action, and solubility.

• Types of forces: Ion-dipole, dipole-dipole, hydrogen bonds, London dispersion forces.

5. BIOCHEMISTRY - BIOMOLECULES

• Classification of biomolecules: Proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic acids, lipids.

• Functions and structures of each type across different contexts.

6. COLLISION THEORY & REACTIONS

• Understand Collision Theory principles and factors affecting reaction rates:

  • Temperature, Concentration, Pressure, Surface Area, Catalysts.

• Observations & measuring rates of chemical changes.

SUMMARY OF PRINCIPLES

• Reactants' orientation and energy impact their successful collisions leading to a reaction; temperature, concentration, pressure, and catalysts vital in speeding up or slowing down reactions.