The New Era Notes

Warren G. Harding became the twenty-ninth president of the United States on March 1921. 

He won the election by promising a “return to normalcy.” 

In his inaugural address, Harding emphasized the need for healing and restoration rather than heroics or revolution. 

The nation was recovering from: 

- The aftermath of World War I. 

- Racial violence and political repression in 1919. 

- A lingering “Red Scare” due to the Bolshevik Revolution. 

Over 115,000 American soldiers died in World War I, and around 700,000 died from a flu epidemic between 1918 and 1920. 

There were significant labor strikes and an increase in radical activities, including bombings in 1919. 

The economy suffered post-war, with national unemployment reaching 20% and skyrocketing bankruptcy rates among farmers. 

Harding's message resonated with a populace struggling with instability despite his inability to deliver promised peace. 

The 1920s transformed American life, known as the New Era, Jazz Age, or Roaring Twenties. 

Economic growth was driven by mass production and consumption of automobiles, appliances, films, and radios. 

New mass entertainment emerged, including talking films and jazz, and social norms began to loosen. 

Many Americans resisted political and economic reform, opposed demographic changes, and revived groups like the Ku Klux Klan. 

Harding's Administration: 

- Signed legislation for a high protective tariff and dismantled wartime industry controls. 

- Addressed fears of immigration and foreign populations post-World War I. 

- Postwar economic struggles led to a decline in the labor movement and union activism. 

- Harding's presidency is noted for significant corruption, with many cabinet members being unqualified friends. 

Key Cabinet Appointees: 

- Henry C. Wallace: Secretary of Agriculture, proponent of scientific farming. 

- Herbert Hoover: Secretary of Commerce, wartime Food Administration head. 

- Andrew Mellon: Secretary of the Treasury, representative of business interests. 

- "Ohio gang" referred to Harding's friends and close supporters, leading to corruption issues. 

Teapot Dome Scandal: 

- Involved leasing government land in Wyoming to oil companies for cash. 

- Interior Secretary Albert Fall and Navy Secretary Edwin Denby resigned; Fall convicted and imprisoned. 

- Harding struggled with the fallout and died suddenly in August 1923, leading to Calvin Coolidge's presidency. 

Coolidge's Presidency: 

- Sought to remove scandal stains while continuing Harding's economic policies. 

- Promoted business interests and reduced taxes on the wealthy from 66% to 20%. 

- Described his approach as “active inactivity,” focusing on business rather than worker protection. 

Women’s Activism in the 1920s: 

- Women gained the right to vote with the Nineteenth Amendment in 1920. 

- Activism included efforts towards prohibition (Eighteenth Amendment), education, and health care. 

- Advocacy for protective legislation for women and children. 

- Alice Paul and the National Woman’s Party introduced the Equal Rights Amendment (ERA), which was defeated in Congress. 

Simultaneously, there were strong movements for equal rights, leading to the emergence of “the New Woman” and “the New Negro.” 

Old immigrant communities maintained their cultures despite new immigration quotas. 

The 1920s were marked by conflict and tension, deviating from the notion of “normalcy.” 

The 1920s were dominated by the Republican Party in national politics. 

President Calvin Coolidge chose not to seek a second term in 1928. 

Coolidge announced his decision in a brief note: “I do not choose to run for president in 1928.” 

The 1928 presidential race featured: 

- Democratic candidate: Al Smith, Governor of New York 

- Faced nativist suspicions due to his Catholic faith and immigrant background. 

- His ties to Tammany Hall and anti-Prohibition stance alienated reformers. 

- Republican candidate: Herbert Hoover 

- Gained favor due to his Midwestern, Protestant background and managerial success during WWI. 

- Promoted themes of economic growth and prosperity, claiming credit for the economic success of the 1920s. 

- Asserted that America was nearing the end of poverty. 

The election was significantly impacted by Smith's religion and anti-Prohibition views. 

Many Protestant ministers opposed Smith, fearing he would be influenced by the pope. 

Hoover won the election in a landslide, despite Smith's strong performance in major cities. 

Notably, several traditionally Democratic southern states voted for a Republican for the first time since Reconstruction. 

Christine Frederick's 1929 monograph, "Selling Mrs. Consumer," highlights significant changes in American consumer behavior. 

The book is based on one of the first surveys of American buying habits, focusing on women who accounted for 90% of household expenditures. 

Frederick's work provides insights into the psychology of the average consumer and reflects the social and economic transformations of her time. 

The America of Frederick's birth differed greatly from the consumer landscape of 1929, shaped by industrial expansion in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. 

New energy sources and manufacturing technologies led to an influx of consumer products, raising concerns about overproduction and market saturation. 

To combat potential financial crises, American businessmen developed innovative merchandising and marketing strategies to stimulate consumer desire. 

Department stores emerged as central figures in the early consumer revolution, offering a wide variety of goods under one roof. 

Innovations in service and marketing, such as restaurants and elaborate store displays, attracted customers to department stores. 

Marshall Field & Co. in Chicago was a leader in these innovations, creating a shopping environment that enhanced the buying experience. 

Early 20th century saw a rise in consumerism among Americans. 

Growth fueled by mail-order catalogs, mass-circulation magazines, and national branding. 

The automobile industry promoted credit use, changing purchasing habits. 

By 1927, over 60% of American automobiles were sold on credit. 

Installment purchasing became common for large consumer goods. 

Consumer spending on household appliances increased by over 120% from 1919 to 1929. 

Henry Ford's assembly line made cars affordable for middle-income Americans. 

Ford's factories produced a Model-T every ten seconds by 1925. 

Registered cars in the U.S. rose from over 9 million in 1920 to nearly 27 million by 1929. 

Americans owned more cars than Great Britain, Germany, France, and Italy combined. 

By the late 1920s, 80% of the world's cars were on American roads. 

Gasoline and electricity transformed American culture in the 1920s, exemplified by automobiles, film, and radio. 

Edgar Burroughs, author of the Tarzan series, expressed a desire to escape societal constraints, reflecting the feelings of many Americans. 

Burroughs wrote new Tarzan stories annually from 1914 to 1939, embodying the desire for freedom and adventure. 

Americans engaged deeply with popular culture, enjoying automobiles, Hollywood films, jazz music, and radio broadcasts. 

The song "Yes, We Have No Bananas" was more popularly sung than the national anthem and hymns combined. 

The rise of the automobile led to increased travel and exploration, with women driving themselves and their families. 

Many Americans vacationed in warmer destinations like Florida during winter months. 

Young couples used the privacy of cars for romantic encounters, moving away from traditional courtship settings. 

To accommodate drivers, infrastructure such as gas stations, diners, motels, and billboards was developed along roadsides. 

Automobiles became a source of entertainment, highlighted by events like the Indianapolis 500, which attracted large crowds. 

By 1930, the United States had become the leader in the global film industry. 

The film industry became more expensive, leading to a concentration of control among a few companies. 

Many of the early Hollywood pioneers were Jewish immigrants from Central and Eastern Europe. 

The Warner brothers (Harry, Albert, Sam, and Jack) founded Warner Bros. after emigrating from Poland. 

Major studios like Universal, Paramount, Columbia, and MGM were established or led by Jewish executives. 

These filmmakers aimed to portray American values such as opportunity, democracy, and freedom in their films. 

Film moguls transitioned from short films to longer, higher-quality productions shown in grand theaters. 

Theaters were designed to attract middle- and upper-class audiences, who had previously avoided cinema. 

The Roxy Theater in New York, built by Samuel Rothafel, showcased luxurious amenities and could hold over 6,000 patrons. 

Warner Bros. invested heavily in sound technology for films, notably for "The Jazz Singer" (1927), despite skepticism from some industry insiders. 

Movie attendance in the U.S. surged from 16 million weekly in 1912 to 40 million in the early 1920s. 

William Fox of Fox Film Corporation described the motion picture as a unique American institution that united diverse audiences. 

Admission pricing was accessible to most Americans, though African Americans faced exclusion or segregation. 

Women made up over 60% of moviegoers, with stars like Mary Pickford, who earned significant income and popularized the "flapper" image. 

Increased movie attendance in America paralleled the rise of radio at home. 

Guglielmo Marconi transmitted the first transatlantic wireless message in 1901; home radios became popular around 1920. 

By 1930, about half of American households had a radio. 

Radio stations generated revenue through advertisements and sponsorships, leading to popular programs like "The Maxwell House Hour" and "The Lucky Strike Orchestra." 

The term "soap operas" emerged as soap companies frequently sponsored daytime dramas for housewives. 

Despite corporate control (e.g., NBC, CBS), radio programs sought to reach a broad audience, promoting national popular culture. 

Radio introduced diverse music to Americans, with jazz, rooted in the African-American community, gaining popularity despite early criticism. 

Jazz represented cultural independence and was embraced by both Black and white Americans. 

Al Jolson became the most popular singer in America, known for his role in "The Jazz Singer." 

The 1920s marked the growth of professional sports, with play-by-play radio broadcasts bringing events to home audiences. 

Major figures included Jack Dempsey, whose boxing matches attracted significant public interest, and Red Grange, who popularized professional football. 

Babe Ruth, known as the "Sultan of Swat," emerged as a national sports icon, revitalizing baseball post-Black Sox Scandal with record home runs in 1920. 

The 1920s saw a rise in materialism and individual pleasure in American culture. 

The flapper symbolized this shift with her bobbed hair, short skirts, makeup, and carefree attitude. 

Flappers rejected Victorian values and embraced public leisure activities like dance halls and speakeasies. 

This cultural movement allowed women greater independence and urban freedoms. 

An advertisement from 1930 highlighted women gaining rights, such as voting and career opportunities, but also emphasized material desires. 

Only 10% of married women worked outside the home, despite a significant increase in unmarried women's workforce participation. 

Advances in technology eased household chores, yet cleanliness standards became more demanding. 

The decade saw the emergence of the "New Woman," but women's coalitions were fragmented into various causes. 

While professional opportunities for women increased, many professions remained male-dominated, and leadership roles were scarce. 

Women’s experiences varied greatly based on race, class, ethnicity, and marital status. 

For many minority women, working outside the home was often a financial necessity rather than a cultural choice. 

Working-class white women joined the workforce to support their families. 

Middle-class white women, often seen as flappers, predominantly worked as clerks in offices but faced a ceiling in career advancement. 

The entry of women into lower-level jobs resulted in these positions being redefined as "women’s work." 

As women aged and married, social changes became more subtle. 

Married women were generally expected to stay in the domestic sphere. 

New consumption patterns increased women's power and autonomy, but household technologies and marriage philosophies heightened their domestic expectations. 

Changes in sex and gender norms cannot be solely assessed by workplace participation. 

The 1920s saw evolving attitudes towards sexuality, particularly among young, college-educated white women, leading to increased premarital sexual activity. 

The gay community thrived in urban centers like New York despite increased policing of gay males. 

Lesbians faced heightened scrutiny as women's sexuality became more sexualized. 

The flapper emerged as a symbol of changing gender notions in the 1920s, representing a new type of womanhood. 

The decade featured diverse experiences for women and men across different races, classes, and ethnicities. 

For some, the 1920s offered reorganization and new opportunities, while for others, it was marked by confusion, contradictions, and new pressures. 

Black Americans faced severe injustices and violence as they entered the 1920s, including Jim Crow segregation, lynching, and the events of 1919's Red Summer. 

The Greenwood District in Tulsa, Oklahoma, known as "Black Wall Street," was a prosperous area built by Black Americans. 

On May 31, 1921, a white mob destroyed the Greenwood District in response to a false claim of sexual assault against a Black man, Dick Rowland. 

The mob caused extensive destruction, burning over 1,000 homes and killing several hundred Black residents, using heavy machine guns and planes dropping firebombs. 

Order was restored the next day, but victims' bodies were buried in mass graves, and thousands were left homeless. 

The Great Migration saw many Black southerners move north, leading to a significant increase in Black populations in northern cities, particularly New York City. 

By 1930, New York's Black population grew by 257%, while the white population increased by only 20%. 

Harlem became a major destination for Black Americans, expanding to accommodate 164,000 residents by 1930, mostly African Americans. 

Issues of crime, health, housing, and unemployment arose due to the rapid influx of people to Harlem. 

The cultural environment of Harlem inspired a sense of race pride and led to the Harlem Renaissance and the New Negro Movement, influenced by military service in World War I and ideas like Pan-Africanism and Garveyism.  

James Weldon Johnson referred to Harlem as "the Culture Capital." 

Alain Locke popularized the term "New Negro" in his 1925 book The New Negro. 

The book emphasized a shift from subservience to spiritual emancipation among African Americans. 

Locke's anthology included diverse writings from Black and white authors, showcasing African American voices. 

Between 1922 and 1935, Harlem Renaissance writers produced 26 novels, 10 poetry volumes, and numerous short stories. 

Notable writers included Langston Hughes, Claude McKay, Jessie Redmon Fauset, and Zora Neale Hurston, with women authors contributing nearly one-third of the novels. 

Literature from this era often challenged stereotypes and racial prejudice. 

The Harlem Renaissance also influenced theater, art, and music: 

- Broadway featured Black actors in serious roles for the first time. 

- Dixie to Broadway was the first all-Black show with mainstream performances. 

- Artists like Meta Vaux Warrick Fuller, Aaron Douglas, and Palmer Hayden celebrated Black cultural heritage. 

- Jazz gained immense popularity, attracting white audiences to Harlem nightclubs. 

Harlem's nightclubs and speakeasies became hubs for sexual freedom and gay life, despite Black performers facing discrimination. 

As the Renaissance declined, many artists continued to produce significant works, highlighting the ongoing cultural and intellectual contributions of African Americans. 

African American self-expression expanded into politics during the 1910s and 1920s. 

Marcus Garvey, a Jamaican publisher and labor organizer, became a key figure for disaffected Black activists after arriving in New York City in 1916. 

He founded the Universal Negro Improvement Association (UNIA), the largest Black nationalist organization in the world. 

Garvey was influenced by Pan-Africanism and Booker T. Washington's industrial education model, opposing W.E.B. Du Bois's elitist strategies. 

His goals included promoting racial pride, encouraging Black economic independence, and addressing racial oppression in Africa and the Diaspora. 

The UNIA was based in Harlem and published the newspaper "Negro World," organizing parades with members dressed in militaristic regalia. 

Garvey criticized the NAACP for its slow judicial focus and acceptance of white support, arguing that reliance on political and industrial progress was insufficient amidst racial violence. 

In 1919, the UNIA planned to establish the Black Star Line shipping company, encouraging Black Americans to reject the political system and consider returning to Africa. 

Garvey faced criticism for his public displays and business ventures, with detractors accusing him of offering empty gestures instead of tangible solutions. 

NAACP leaders claimed Garvey's approach advocated for surrender rather than struggle. 

A "Garvey Must Go" campaign led to Garvey's indictment in 1922, imprisonment in 1925, and deportation for fraud. 

The UNIA struggled to regain popularity after Garvey's pardon in 1927, but his movement had a lasting impact on Black consciousness. 

Garvey inspired figures like Malcolm X and Kwame Nkrumah, with his rallying cry "Up, you mighty race" resonating with African Americans seeking dignity.  

Garveyism reflected themes typical of the Harlem Renaissance. 

The 1920s was a challenging era for radicals, immigrants, and modern ideas in the U.S. 

Fear of foreign radicals led to the execution of Italian anarchists Nicola Sacco and Bartolomeo Vanzetti in 1927. 

Sacco and Vanzetti were arrested in May 1920 for robbery and murder; evidence against them was minimal and conflicting. 

Despite global protests and support from middle-class Italian organizations, they were executed on August 23, 1927. 

Vanzetti attributed his suffering to being a radical and an Italian. 

Many Americans expressed anxiety over societal changes, seeking scapegoats among Eastern European and Latin American immigrants, and African Americans advocating for civil rights. 

The Great Migration saw nearly half a million Black Southerners move to northern cities between 1910 and 1920. 

Protestants criticized the Roman Catholic Church, suggesting allegiance to the pope over the U.S. 

In 1921, the Emergency Immigration Act was enacted, followed by the National Origins Act in 1924, establishing country-of-origin quotas. 

The National Origins Act restricted immigration to 2% based on the 1890 population, disadvantaging non-northern European immigrants. 

The act excluded all Asians and temporarily exempted Mexican immigrants to appease agricultural interests. 

The Sacco and Vanzetti case and immigration restrictions highlighted a growing nativism in America. 

Many Americans were concerned about the changing identity of the country, leading to a perceived culture war. 

Christian Fundamentalism emerged from doctrinal disputes among Protestant leaders. 

Liberal theologians aimed to merge religion with science and secular culture, advocating for metaphorical interpretations of miracles. 

The social gospel movement encouraged Christians to combat social and economic inequality, aligning with liberal theology. 

During the 1910s, funding from oil barons led to the creation of "The Fundamentals," foundational documents for Christian fundamentalism. 

Contributors of "The Fundamentals" emphasized literal truths of Christian faith, including beliefs in the physical return of Jesus and biblical inerrancy. 

American fundamentalists came from various Protestant denominations and drew from diverse philosophies, notably the holiness movement and revivalism. 

The movement opposed modernism and upheld the Bible as the inerrant word of God. 

Fundamentalists faced off against liberal views in the 1925 Scopes trial in Dayton, Tennessee, over the teaching of evolution. 

John T. Scopes, a biology teacher, was tried for violating the Butler Act by teaching evolution. 

The American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) sought to challenge the law's constitutionality through Scopes' case. 

The trial became a public spectacle, featuring Clarence Darrow for the defense and William Jennings Bryan for the prosecution. 

Bryan argued against evolution, claiming it undermined moral values and love in society. 

The small town of Dayton was flooded with newspapermen and spectators during a significant trial. 

The trial addressed issues of religious liberty, academic freedom, parental rights, and moral responsibility in education. 

For six days in July, Americans were captivated by the arguments presented by William Jennings Bryan and Clarence Darrow. 

Bryan argued against the influence of evolutionary theory, referencing Darrow’s previous defense of notorious criminals. 

Darrow advocated for academic freedom during the trial. 

Bryan served as an "expert witness" on the Bible but struggled against Darrow's legal skills, appearing blundering and incoherent. 

Bryan's beliefs were not strictly literalist regarding the Genesis account, which complicated his testimony. 

Darrow posed challenging questions that Bryan could not adequately address, leading to a public relations disaster for him. 

The jury quickly delivered a guilty verdict against John Scopes, although the case was later dismissed on a technicality. 

Despite the verdict, Darrow was viewed by some as having won the battle, highlighting fundamentalists' struggles in the public eye. 

Journalist H. L. Mencken described the trial as an embarrassment for fundamentalism. 

Although fundamentalists retreated from the public spotlight, they built a local subculture and eventually re-emerged stronger. 

Suspicions of immigrants, Catholics, and modernists led to reactionary organizations, notably the Ku Klux Klan (KKK). 

The KKK expanded its focus from anti-Black politics to include opposition against feminists, immigrants, Catholics, Jews, atheists, and bootleggers, claiming to protect American values. 

Two key events in 1915 inspired the Klan's rebirth: the lynching of Leo Frank and the release of the film The Birth of a Nation. 

Colonel William Joseph Simmons organized the "second" KKK in Georgia in late 1915, modeled after fraternal organizations. 

Initially confined to Georgia and Alabama, the Klan expanded nationally after a professional recruiting effort began in 1920, reaching an estimated five million members. 

The KKK's expansion was partly in response to the migration of Black southerners to northern cities during WWI. 

Membership grew in northern cities like Philadelphia, Detroit, Chicago, and Portland, with Klan-backed candidates winning mayoral elections. 

Recruitment was often conducted through fraternal organizations and Protestant churches, with local Klansmen making donations to ministers. 

The Klan organized large public events such as picnics, parades, and rallies to attract new members. 

A women’s auxiliary, the Women of the Ku Klux Klan, was established in 1923, mirroring the KKK and attracting women involved in the Prohibition movement. 

Contrary to being perceived as a southern, lower-class group, the second Klan had a national presence and attracted many middle-class individuals. 

The Klan had significant political influence, with members dominating politics in various states, including Texas and Arkansas. 

At its peak, the Klan claimed between four and five million members and had influence even in Canada. 

The Klan is primarily remembered as a violent vigilante group due to its political activism. 

Klan members engaged in lynching and "nightriding," targeting bootleggers, union activists, civil rights workers, and others deemed "immoral." 

In Oklahoma, Governor John C. Walton imposed martial law in 1923 due to extensive Klan violence. 

Witnesses reported various acts of violence, including flogging and disfiguring individuals involved in civil rights, like a Black man registering voters. 

The Klan operated a surveillance network in Houston, tapping phones and placing spies to identify "undesirables." 

In Aiken, South Carolina, Klan members lynched Bertha Lowman and her brothers in 1926, with no prosecutions due to local officials' Klan affiliations. 

The Klan's membership dwindled in the late 1920s, dropping to about thirty thousand by 1930. 

The Klan re-emerged as a diminished force during the civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s. 

Herbert Hoover, in his 1929 inauguration speech, claimed the Republican Party had brought prosperity, overlooking significant poverty and inequality. 

The economy of the 1920s was built on credit, creating vulnerabilities amidst flailing European economies, high tariffs, and wealth inequality. 

The end of the 1920s marked a transition from prosperity to decay, with the Great Depression looming for many Americans who did not benefit from the decade's wealth.