French Revolution

French Society in the Late 18th Century

• King Louis XVI of the Bourbon family became king in 1774; married to Marie Antoinette of Austria.

• France was in a financial crisis: treasury was empty due to:

  • Expensive wars

  • Lavish spending on the Palace of Versailles

• Louis XVI supported American colonies against Britain, adding 1 billion livres to the already huge national debt (over 2 billion livres).

• Lenders charged 10% interest on loans, worsening the debt.

• To cover state expenses (army, court, universities, etc.), taxes were raised.

  • But only the Third Estate paid taxes.

• French society was divided into three estates:

  • This system was feudal and known as the Old Regime.

  • First and Second Estates were privileged, only the Third Estate bore the tax burden.

The Three Estates of France

1. First Estate (The Clergy)

• Included people with religious roles (e.g., priests).

• Owned vast land and wealth.

• Privileged by birth – exempt from paying taxes.

• Collected ‘Tithe’ (a tax = 1/10th of produce) from peasants.

2. Second Estate (The Nobility)

• Made up of rich aristocrats.

• Also exempt from taxes.

• Enjoyed feudal privileges, like feudal dues from peasants.

3. Third Estate

• Included everyone else: businessmen, lawyers, peasants, artisans, laborers, etc.

• No privileges; paid direct tax (Taille) and indirect taxes (on salt, tobacco, etc.).

• 90% of the population; most were landless.

• 60% of the land was owned by nobles, Church, and other elite.

• Peasants were forced to serve nobles, join the army, or build roads.

The Struggle to Survive

• Between 1715 and 1789, France's population increased significantly, putting pressure on resources.

• The demand for food grains rose, but agricultural production remained stagnant.

• This imbalance led to higher food prices, especially of bread, the staple food.

• Wages of workers did not increase in proportion to prices, lowering their purchasing power.

• Bad weather conditions (frequent droughts, hail, etc.) caused poor harvests.

• This created a subsistence crisis — a situation where people could not meet even basic survival needs.

• The hardest hit were the poor peasants and urban workers, who spent most of their income on food.

• The crisis intensified social unrest, becoming one of the triggers of the French Revolution.

A Growing Middle Class

• In the 18th century, a new social group emerged: the middle class.

• They gained wealth through overseas trade and manufacturing (e.g., woolen and silk textiles).

• Included merchants, manufacturers, lawyers, and administrative officials.

• This class was educated and believed in merit, not birth-based privilege.

Role of Enlightenment Thinkers

• Middle class spread revolutionary ideas through books and newspapers.

• Inspired by philosophers who criticized absolute monarchy and social inequality:

  • John Locke:

    • In Two Treatises of Government, opposed divine right of kings.

    • Argued government should be based on consent of the governed.

  • Jean-Jacques Rousseau:

    • In The Social Contract, proposed government based on a social agreement between people and their representatives.

  • Montesquieu:

    • In The Spirit of the Laws, introduced separation of powers — legislature, executive, judiciary.

    • This idea was adopted by the USA after independence.

Impact on French Society

• These ideas created awareness and challenged privileges of the First and Second Estates.

• When Louis XVI imposed new taxes, the middle class protested, demanding equality, freedom, and reform.

• They played a major role in leading the French Revolution.

The Outbreak of the Revolution

• On May 5, 1789, Louis XVI called a meeting of the Estates General at Versailles to discuss new taxes.

• All three estates sent representatives:

  • First Estate (Clergy): 300 representatives

  • Second Estate (Nobility): 300 representatives

  • Third Estate: 600 representatives

• First and Second Estates were seated facing each other in the front rows.

• Third Estate representatives were more educated and prosperous, but were treated unequally:

  • Had to stand at the back

  • No voting power—each Estate had one collective vote, despite size differences

• This unfair treatment became a turning point, leading to protests and demands for change.

• Peasants, artisans, and women were not allowed to attend the assembly.

  • They sent their demands and grievances through Third Estate representatives.

• The Third Estate demanded:

  • Individual voting — “One member, one vote” instead of “One Estate, one vote.”

• Louis XVI rejected this demand.

• In protest, the Third Estate representatives walked out of the assembly.

National Assembly of the Third Estate

• On June 20, 1789, Third Estate representatives gathered at an indoor tennis court in Versailles.

• They declared themselves the National Assembly and vowed to:

  • Draft a new constitution for France.

  • Limit the powers of the monarchy.

• Leaders of the National Assembly:

  • Mirabeau – Born into nobility, but supported the Third Estate and gave powerful speeches.

  • Abbé Sieyès – A priest who wrote the famous pamphlet "What is the Third Estate?"

Revolt Starts at the Bastille

• Severe winter led to poor harvests and high bread prices.

• Bakers hoarded bread, causing anger among the hungry poor.

• On July 14, 1789, a large, angry crowd stormed the Bastille prison.

  • The Bastille was a symbol of royal oppression.

• In the countryside, rumors spread that landlords hired robbers to destroy crops.

• In response, peasants attacked chateaux:

  • Burned records of manorial dues.

  • Looted grain stores.

• Result: Many nobles fled to nearby countries fearing violence.

End of Special Privileges

• On 4th August 1789, France passed a law abolishing the feudal system of obligations and taxes.

• This was a result of the revolt against the Old Regime and growing pressure on the monarchy.

• Clergy and nobility were forced to give up their privileges.

• Tithes (a tax collected by the Church from peasants) were abolished.

• Church lands were seized by the government.

• The state gained assets worth at least 2 billion livres through this land acquisition.

France Becomes a Constitutional Monarchy

• In 1791, the National Assembly completed the draft of the Constitution.

• Main objective: To limit the powers of the monarch.

• Separation of powers was introduced:

  • Power was divided among the Legislature, Executive, and Judiciary.

• This transformation turned France into a constitutional monarchy.

Laws Made by the National Assembly

• The assembly was indirectly elected:

  • Active citizens voted for a group of electors, who then chose the assembly members.

Key Changes Introduced:

1. Voting Rights:

   • Only men above 25 years who paid taxes equal to at least 3 days of a laborer's wage were given status of active citizens (had the right to vote).

   • The rest of the men and all women were passive citizens (no voting rights).

2. Elector Qualification:

   • To be an elector or assembly member, a man had to belong to the highest taxpayer group.

3. Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen:

   • Stated rights like:

     • Right to life

     • Freedom of speech

     • Freedom of opinion

     • Equality before law

   • These were described as "natural and inalienable rights", and it was the state's duty to protect them.

France Abolishes Monarchy and Becomes a Republic

• France’s neighbors (e.g., Austria, Prussia) planned to crush the revolution.

• In April 1792, the National Assembly declared war against Austria.

• Thousands of volunteers joined the army. They sang the patriotic song Marseillaise (later became the National Anthem of France).

• Constitution of 1791 gave voting rights only to the rich.

• Political clubs emerged where people discussed reforms.

  • The most successful: Jacobin Club, named after the convent of St. Jacob in Paris.

The Jacobin Club

• Members were from less prosperous sections: shopkeepers, artisans, cooks, printers, servants, daily wage workers.

• Leader: Maximilien Robespierre.

• Members wore striped trousers (worn by dock workers) to symbolize the end of aristocratic power.

• Known as ‘sans-culottes’ (without knee breeches).

• Red cap: Symbol of liberty.

The Convention: Newly Elected Assembly

• On 10th August 1792, Jacobins attacked the Palace of Tuileries.

• The king’s guards were killed, and the king was held hostage.

• Later, the royal family was imprisoned.

• In August 1792, elections were held: All men above 21 could vote, regardless of wealth.

• New assembly: The Convention.

• On 21st September 1792, monarchy was abolished → France became a Republic.

• Louis XVI was found guilty of treason and executed on 21st January 1793.

• Marie Antoinette was also executed.

The Reign of Terror (1793–1794)

• A period of harsh control and severe punishment under Robespierre.

Events during this time:

1. Enemies of the Republic (nobles, clergy, political opponents) were arrested, tried by Revolutionary Tribunal, and guillotined.

2. Peasants were forced to transport and sell grain at government prices.

3. White flour was banned; only brown bread (pain d’égalité) allowed.

4. Monsieur/Madame replaced by Citoyen/Citoyenne.

5. Churches were shut down and converted to barracks or offices.

6. Even Robespierre’s supporters turned against him.

7. Robespierre was guillotined in July 1794.

A Directory Rules France

• After the fall of the Jacobins, the wealthier middle classes took control of power.

• A new Constitution was introduced:

  • Denied voting rights to non-propertied sections of society.

• The Constitution created:

  • Two elected legislative councils.

  • These councils appointed a Directory (an Executive body) with five members.

• The Directory often clashed with the Legislative Councils, leading to political instability.

• This instability allowed the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte, a military dictator.

• Despite changes, ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity remained strong:

  • Inspired political movements in France and across Europe.

Women in Revolution

• Women played a significant role in the French Revolution.

• Most belonged to the Third Estate and worked to earn a living:

  • As seamstresses, laundresses

  • Selling fruits, vegetables, flowers

  • Working as domestic servants

• Only wealthier women could study at a convent.

• In addition to work, women had to:

  • Cook, fetch water, stand in queues for bread

  • Care for children

• Their wages were lower than men's.

• Women were disappointed with the 1791 Constitution:

  • It reduced them to passive citizens with no political rights.

• They demanded:

  • Right to Vote

  • Right to be elected

  • Right to hold office

• Women expressed views through:

  • Political clubs

  • Newspapers

• Around 60 women’s clubs formed across French cities:

  • Most famous: “The Society of Revolutionary and Republican Women”

Laws Passed to Improve Women’s Lives

• In the early years, several laws were passed:

  • (i) Education: State schools introduced compulsory education for girls.

  • (ii) Marriage reforms:

    • No longer forced into marriage by fathers.

    • Marriage became a civil contract.

  • (iii) Divorce became legal for both men and women.

  • (iv) Women could train for jobs, become artists, or run small businesses.

🔹 Olympe de Gouges (1748–1793)

• A politically active woman in revolutionary France.

• Protested against the Constitution and the Declaration of Rights of Man and Citizen.

• In 1791, she wrote:

  • “Declaration of the Rights of Woman and Citizen”, addressing the Queen and National Assembly.

• In 1793, she was:

  • Arrested and executed by the National Convention for criticizing the Jacobins and supporting women’s clubs.

French Women Got Right to Vote

• During the Reign of Terror, women’s clubs were closed.

• Many prominent women were arrested or executed.

• The struggle continued into the late 19th and early 20th century.

• In 1946, French women finally gained the Right to Vote.

The Abolition of Slavery

• The Jacobin government abolished slavery in French colonies in 1794.

• French colonies like Martinique, Guadeloupe, and San Domingo were key suppliers of goods.

• The triangular slave trade began in the 17th century:

  • Between Europe, Africa, and America.

  • French merchants brought slaves from African chieftains.

• These ports (e.g., Bordeaux, Nantes) prospered from the slave trade.

• By the late 1700s, there was little criticism of slavery in France.

• After long debates, slavery was officially abolished in 1794.

• But in 1802, Napoleon reintroduced slavery to appease plantation owners.

• These slaves were known as African Negroes.

• Finally, slavery was permanently abolished in 1848.

The Revolution and Everyday Life

• After 1789, many social changes affected the lives of men, women, and children in France.

• One major change was the abolition of censorship:

  • Before 1789, written material, newspapers, pamphlets, and books had to be approved by the King’s censors before being published.

  • After censorship was abolished, freedom of speech and freedom of the press became natural rights.

  • This led to a boom in publications like newspapers and pamphlets, encouraging public debate and exchange of ideas.

Conclusion

• In 1804, Napoleon Bonaparte, a famous general, crowned himself Emperor of France.

• He:

  • Conquered European countries, deposed kings, and placed his family members as rulers.

  • Modernized France with:

    • Protection of private property

    • A uniform system for weights and measures

    • The decimal system

• While some saw him as a liberator, others viewed him as a military dictator.

• In 1815, Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo.

  • Despite his defeat, his ideas on liberty and modern laws continued to influence other parts of Europe.

• The French Revolution’s core ideas — liberty, equality, and democratic rights — became powerful ideals that ended feudal systems and inspired global political change.