Exam 1- history

Exam 1 Study Guide

Monday, February 10, 2025

1:14 PM

Chapter 1: Introduction

• Considerations in writing a history of psychology

  • Know the following terms:

    • Historiography: The study of the proper way to write history.

    • Presentism: Interpreting and evaluating historical events in terms of contemporary knowledge and standards.

    • Historicism: The study of the past for its own sake, without attempting to interpret and evaluate it in terms of current knowledge and standards.

    • Zeitgeist: The spirit of the times.

    • Great Person Approach: The approach to history that concentrates on the most prominent contributors to the topic or field, under consideration.

    • Historical development Approach: The approach to history that concentrates on an element of a field or discipline and describes how the understanding or approach to studying that element has changed over time.

    • Eclectic Approach: Take the best from a variety of viewpoints.

• Why study the history of psychology?

  • To gain a richer understanding of the field of psychology

    • Allows for greater awareness of where psychology's subject matter came from and why it is considered important 

  • To recognize and understand the development of ideas

    • The history of ideas, methods, and prejudice is an important part of the practice of science

  • To be aware of the demise of ideas

    • Some ideas disappear- not because they are wrong, but because they become unpopular

• Psychology and Science

  • Karl Popper's views on science

    • Principle of falsifiability: Popper's contention that for a theory to be considered scientific it must specify the observations that, if made, would refute the theory.

    • Stages involved in science:

      • Problem- Science beings with a problem or question that needs to be solved.

      • Theories- Scientists propose theories as potential solutions to the problems. These theories are not considered ultimate truths but rather tentative explanations that must be tested.

      • Criticism- Theories must be subjected to rigorous testing and scrutiny. Popper emphasized the Principle of Falsifiability

  • Thomas Kuhn's views on science

    • Stages of scientific development

      • Pre-paradigmatic stage- In this early stage, there is no single accepted framework or theory guiding research. Scientists work independently, proposing various competing explanations for phenomena.

      • Paradigmatic Stage- A dominant theory (or paradigm) emerges, which provides a shared framework for research. Scientists work within this paradigm, refining it and applying it to different problems.

      • Revolutionary Stage- overtime, anomalies (problems that the paradigm cannot explain) accumulate.

  • Popper vs Kuhn

• Know the following terms

  • Universalism: the belief that some principles, values, or truths are universally applicable across all cultures, societies, or individuals.

  • Relativism: The idea that truth, morality, and knowledge are not absolute but rather depend on cultural, historical, or personal perspectives.

  • Biological determinism: The view that human behavior, personality, and abilities are determined by genetic or biological factors rather than environmental factors.

  • Environmental determinism: The belief that human behavior and societal development are shaped primarily by environmental conditions rather than genetic inheritance.

  • Sociocultural determinism: The idea that social and cultural factors, such as upbringing, traditions, and societal norms, determine human behavior and though processes.

  • Materialism: Philosophers who argue that reality consist only of physical matter and that all phenomena, including consciousness, can be explained in physical terms.

  • Idealists: Philosophers who believe that reality is fundamentally based on the mind or ideas, rather than physical matter.

  • Dualists: Those who hold the belief that reality consists of two fundamentally different substances: the physical (body) and non-physical (mind or soul)

  • Naïve Realism: The common-sense belief that the world is exactly as we perceive it, without any influence from our mental or sensory interpretations.

  • Nativists: Individuals who believe that certain knowledge, abilities, or traits are innate rather than learned through experience.

  • Empiricists: Thinkers who argue that knowledge come primarily from sensory experience and observation rather than innate ideas or reasoning

  • Rationalism: The philosophical belief that reason and logic, rather than experience, are the primary sources of knowledge.

  • Empiricism: The theory that all knowledge is derived from sense experience, emphasizing observation and experimentation.

  • Determinism: The belief that all events, including human actions, are determined by prior causes, whether biological, environmental, or social, and that free will is an illusion.

Chapter 2: The Ancient World

• The First Philosophers

  • Heraclitus- Suggested fire as the physis because in its presence nothing remains the same. He reviewed the world as in a constant state of flux and thereby raised the question as to what could be known with certainty.

  • Pythagoras- Believed that an abstract world consists of number and numerical relationships exerted an influence on the physical world.

  • Democritus- Offered atoms as the physis. Everything in nature including humans, was explained in terms of atoms and their activities.

• Early Greek Medicine

  • Hippocrates- Often referred to as the "Father of Medicine", he developed the theory of the four humors (blood, phlegm, black bile, and yellow bile) and emphasized natural causes of disease rather than supernatural explanations.

• The Sophists and Socrates

  • Protagoras- A Sophist philosopher known for his claim that "Man is the measure of all things", advocating for relativism in knowledge.

  • Gorgias- A Sophist who argued that nothing exists, and if it did, it could not be known or communicated.

  • Socrates- Disagreed with Sophist's contention and there is no discernible truth beyond individual opinion. Known for the Socratic method, which involves questioning to stimulate critical thinking and expose contradictions in arguments.

• Plato

  • Theory of Forms- Plato proposed that reality consists of two realms: the physical world and the world of perfect, unchanging Forms (or ideas), which represent the true essence of things.

  • The Allegory of the Cave- A metaphor for enlightenment, illustrating how individuals who rely solely on their senses are like prisoners in a cave, mistaking shadows for reality.

  • The Reminiscence Theory of Knowledge- Plato argued that knowledge is innate and that learning is the process of recollecting what the soul already knows from its preexistence.

• Aristotle

  • Causation: Aristotle identified four types of causes that explain why things exist and change:

    • Material cause- What something is made of. (Ex. Wood for a table)

    • Formal cause- The blueprint or essence of a thing

    • Efficient cause- The force or agent that brings something into being

    • Final cause- The purpose of function of a thing

  • Laws of Associationism: Aristotle's principles explaining how ideas are connected in the mind:

    • Law of contiguity- Things experienced together in time or space are linked in memory

    • Law of Similarity- Similar concepts tend to be associated with each other

    • Law of Contrast- opposing ideas are connected in thought

    • Law of frequency- The more frequently two things are experienced together, the stronger the association.

Chapter 3: Rome and the Middle Ages

• Greek philosophy After Aristotle

  • Skepticism: A philosophical school that questioned the possibility of certain knowledge. Skeptics argued that because our senses and reasoning can be deceived, we should suspend judgement and avoid making absolute claims about reality.

  • Cynicism: A philosophy that rejected societal norms, wealth, and material possessions, advocating for a simple self-sufficient life in accordance with nature.

  • Epicureanism: Founded by Epicurus, this philosophy emphasized seeking pleasure (in moderation) and avoiding pain as the highest good. It promoted intellectual pleasures over physical indulgence and encouraged living a tranquil, self-sufficient life free from fear.

• Philosophy in Rome

  • Stoicism: A philosophy emphasizing rationally, self-discipline, and acceptance of fate. Founded by Zeno of Citium, Stoics believed that virtue was the highest good and that emotions should be controlled to achieve inner peace.

  • Neoplatonism: A philosophical system developed from Plato's ideas, emphasizing a metaphysical hierarchy in which all existence emanates from a singular divine source, often called "The One"

    • Philo- A Jewish philosopher who integrated Greek philosophy, especially Platonism, with religious though, arguing for a mystical interpretation of scriptures.

    • Plotinus- The major figure in Neoplatonism, he expanded on Plato's ideas, proposing that the ultimate reality is "The One" from which all things flow, and that the soul must ascend through contemplation and purification to unite with it.

• Emphasis on the Spirit

  • St. Augustine: A Christian theologian and philosopher who blended Neoplatonism with Christian doctrine. He emphasized the role of divine grace, original sin, and the necessity of faith for true knowledge.

• Scholasticism:

  • was a medieval philosophical and theological system that sought to reconcile faith with reason, particularly using Aristotelian logic with a Christian framework. It emphasized rigorous argumentation and dialectical reasoning.

    • Key Figures:

      • Peter Lombard- A theologian for The Four Books of Sentences, which became standard textbook for medieval theology. His framework systematically organized Christian doctrine and influenced later Scholastic thinkers.

      • Peter Abelard- A philosopher and theologian famous for his use of logical analysis in theology, particularly in his work Sic et Non (Yes and No), where he examined theological contradictions to refine Christian doctrine.

      • Thomas Aquinas- The most influential Scholastic thinker, known for Summa Theologica, in which he combined Aristotelian philosophy with Christian theology. He developed the concept of natural law, argued for the existence of God through his Five Ways, and emphasized the harmony between reason and faith.

• William Occam: A Turning Point

  • William of Ockham: A philosopher and theologian who challenged the Scholastic tradition by advocating for nominalism, which denies the existence of universal concepts outside of individual objects. His ideas laid the foundation for empirical science and modern philosophy

    • Occam's Razor: A principle that states that among competing explanations, the simplest one (the one with the fewest assumptions) should be preferred. This principle has had a lasting impact on philosophy, science, and logic

Chapter 4: Renaissance Science and Philosophy

• Renaissance humanism: Humanism during the Renaissance emphasized individualism, the study if classical texts, and the importance of human potential and achievements.

  • Petrarch: Considered the "Father of Humanism", he revived interest in ancient Roman and Greek texts, promoting classical scholarship and focus on personal virtue.

  • Erasmus: A Dutch humanist and theologian who criticized church corruption and emphasized education, free will, and moral philosophy in works.

  • Martin Luther: A key figure in the Protestant Reformation, he challenged the Catholic Church's practices, emphasizing personal faith and the authority of scripture over church hierarchy.

• Renaissance Science

  • Ptolemy VS. Aristarchus of Samos- Ptolemy's geocentric model (Earth at the center of the universe) dominated for centuries, while Aristarchus proposed an early heliocentric model, which later gained acceptance.

  • Copernicus- Developed the modern Heliocentric theory, which placed the Sun at the center of the universe, challenging traditional geocentric views.

  • Kepler- Discovered that planets move in elliptical orbits around the Sun, refining Copernicus' model with mathematical precision.

  • Galileo-  used the telescope to provide evidence for heliocentrism, observing moons orbiting Jupiter, which contradicted the geocentric model.

    • Objective vs, Subjective Reality: Galileo distinguished between primary (measurable) qualities like motion and size, and secondary (subjective) qualities like color and taste.

• Isaac Newton

  • Deism: Newton was deist, believing that while God created the universe, it operates according to natural laws without divine intervention. His laws of motion and gravity laid the foundation for modern physics.

• Francis Bacon

  • Induction vs Deduction:

    • Inductive reasoning- Derives general principles from specific observations (used in the scientific method)

    • Deductive reasoning- Starts with general principles and applies them to specific cases

  • Four Sources of Error:

    • Idols of the Cave: personal biases shaped by an individual's background, upbringing, or experiences

    • Idols of the Tribe: Human nature biases, such as seeing patterns where none exist.

    • Idols of the Marketplace: Miscommunication and misunderstandings caused by language and terminology.

    • Idols of the Theater: Blind acceptance of established philosophies and traditions without questioning.

• Rene Descartes

  • "I think, therefore, I am"- His foundational philosophical statement asserting that the ability to think is the ultimate proof of existence.

  • Innate Ideas- The belief that certain concepts (such as God, self, and mathematical truths) are present in the mind at birth, rather than learned through experience

  • Reflex- Descartes introduced the concept of reflexive responses as automatic bodily reactions, laying the groundwork for later studies in neuroscience.

Chapter 5: Empiricism, Sensationalism, and Positivism

• British Empiricism: the philosophical view that knowledge comes primarily from sensory experience, rejecting innate ideas.

  • Thomas Hobbes:

    • Explanation of psychological phenomena- Hobbes believed that all mental processes, including thoughts and emotions, arise from physical motions in the brain. He was materialist, arguing that everything, including consciousness, could be explained by matter in motion.

    • Free Will- Hobbes was a determinist, meaning he denied true free will. He argued that human actions are determined by external and internal forces, and what we perceive as "free will" is simply the outcome of proper causes influencing our choices.

  • John Locke:

    • Where Ideas Come From- Locke rejected the notion of innate ideas and proposed that all knowledge originates from experience. He described the mind as a "tabula rasa" (blank slate) that is shaped by sensory input and reflection.

      • Simple Ideas vs. Complex Ideas

        • Simple Ideas- are basic sensory experiences

        • Complex ideas- are formed by combining simple ideas through processes such as comparison, abstraction, and reflection.

      • Primary Qualities vs. Secondary Qualities

        • Primary qualities- are inherent in objects and exist independently of perception

        • Secondary qualities- depend on the perceiver and do not exist in objects themselves.

  • George Berkeley:

    • View on Materialism:

      • Berkeley opposed materialism, which hold that reality is composed of physical matter. Instead, he argued that the physical world only exists as perceptions in the mind.

    • "To be is to be perceived"

      • Berkeley famous principle states that objects only exist when they are perceived. He believed that an all-perceiving God ensures the continued existence of reality.

  • David Hume:

    • Impressions vs. Ideas:

      • Impressions: Direct, vivid sensory experiences

      • Ideals: Faint mental copies of impressions.

    • Laws of Association:

      • Resemblance- similarity

      • Contiguity- occurrence together in time or space

      • Cause and effect- perceived relationships between events

    • Analysis of Mind:

      • Hume argued that the self is not a fixed entity but a bundle of perceptions that change over time.

  • David Hartley:

    • Developed associative psychology, proposing that mental experiences are formed by associations between sensory experiences.

  • James Mill:

    • A strict empiricist and utilitarian who applied associationism to explain all mental processes

  • Jeremy Bentham:

    • Founder of utilitarianism, arguing that moral actions should be judged based on their ability to maximize pleasure and minimize pain.

  • John Stuart Mil:

    • Mental chemistry

      • Proposed that complex ideas are not just the sum of simple ideas but can combine unpredictable ways, much like chemical reactions.

  • Alexander Bain:

    • Emphasized habit formation and the role of physiological processes in psychology

      • Goal- Bain aimed to integrate psychology with physiological processes, linking mind and body

• French sensationalism

  • Pierre Gassendi- A materialist who sought to reconcile Epicurean atomism with Christianity, arguing that sensations arise from atomic movements

  • Julien de La Mattrie- A radical materialist who argued that humans are purely mechanical beings, comparing the human mind to a machine.
     

• Positivism

  • Auguste Comte- The founder of positivism, which hold that knowledge should be based solely on observable facts and empirical data, rejecting metaphysics and speculation.

  • Ernst Mach- Developed empirical positivism, arguing that scientific concepts should only describe sensory experiences, not unobservable realties.