HIST 196 Midterm (copy) (copy)

Key Historical Figures and Concepts

• Thomas Hobbes: An English philosopher best known for his work Leviathan (1651), which argues that humans are naturally in a state of war and require a strong, centralized authority to maintain peace and order. Hobbes believed that in the absence of such power, life would be "solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short." His social contract theory suggests that individuals consent to surrender some freedoms to a sovereign in exchange for protection and social order.

• Leviathan: Hobbes's seminal work detailing his views on the structure of society and legitimate government. It advocates for absolute sovereignty as the only means to prevent chaos and societal destruction. In Leviathan, Hobbes describes the state as an artificial person created to maintain peace, emphasizing the need for a powerful governing body.

• Carl Schmitt: A German political theorist known for his concepts of political theology and the friend-enemy distinction, which defines politics by the presence of a conflict between friends and enemies. His ideas significantly influenced modern theories of totalitarianism, state sovereignty, and war. Schmitt argued that the state holds the power to decide on the exception and that sovereignty is characterized by the ability to dictate which norms apply in times of crisis.

• Hannah Arendt: A prominent political theorist recognized for her analyses of totalitarian regimes, particularly her work on the nature of evil and the role of ideology and terror in dictating human action. In her book, The Origins of Totalitarianism, she examines the unique characteristics of fascism and Stalinism, emphasizing the dangers posed by ideology in undermining the individual’s moral responsibility.

• Joseph Goebbels: The Nazi Minister of Propaganda, who was instrumental in shaping public opinion and mobilizing German society during World War II through mass communications, including films, newspapers, and rallies. Goebbels' efforts were central to the dissemination of Nazi ideology, promoting antisemitism and fostering a cult of personality around Adolf Hitler.

• The Holy Roman Empire: A complex multi-ethnic political entity in Central Europe that lasted from 800 until its dissolution in 1806. It was characterized by a decentralized structure and was weakened significantly by the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), which left its territories devastated and its political authority fragmented.

• Westphalian Sovereignty: A principle established by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648, which marked the end of the Thirty Years' War. It asserts that states have sovereignty over their territory and independence from external intervention, laying the groundwork for the modern international system of states.

• The Estates General: A legislative assembly in France before the revolution, representing the three estates: the clergy, the nobility, and the commoners. It convened to address financial crises but became a crucial turning point leading to the French Revolution in 1789 when the Third Estate broke away to form the National Assembly.

• The National Assembly: The revolutionary assembly formed by the representatives of the Third Estate in June 1789. Its formation marked a significant step towards democracy in France, aiming to draft a new constitution and assert the rights of the common people against the absolute monarchy.

• The Tennis Court Oath: A pivotal event in the early French Revolution on June 20, 1789, where members of the National Assembly vowed not to disband until they had established a new constitution for France, reflecting the shift towards popular sovereignty and collective action against the monarchy.

• The Civil Constitution of the Clergy: A controversial law passed in 1790 that reorganized the Catholic Church in France under state control. It aimed to reduce the power of the church in government but resulted in significant conflict, leading to a schism between those who supported the Revolution and those loyal to the pope.

• The Committee of Public Safety: Established during the Reign of Terror (1793-1794), this powerful body led by figures such as Maximilien Robespierre oversaw policies aimed at eliminating perceived enemies of the revolution, resulting in widespread executions and radical social changes.

• The Law of 22 Prairial: Enacted in June 1794, this law simplified legal proceedings during the Reign of Terror and significantly increased the number of executions, as defendants were denied proper defense and often condemned based on vague accusations.

• Democratic War (Robespierre): A doctrine promoted by Robespierre that argued revolutionary France must engage in warfare to defend and propagate its ideals of democracy, liberty, and equality. This notion justified aggressive military tactics and the expansion of revolutionary principles abroad.

• The Napoleonic Code: Established in 1804, this legal code reformed the French legal system by emphasizing equality before the law, property rights, and the secular nature of the state. It significantly influenced legal systems worldwide and was part of Napoleon's efforts to centralize governance and impose uniformity.

• The Continental System: An economic measure employed by Napoleon that aimed to economically isolate Britain by prohibiting trade between Britain and other European nations under French control. It ultimately backfired, leading to widespread smuggling and resentment among European states.

• William L. Harris: A Confederate politician advocating for secession and justifying slavery as an essential aspect of the Southern way of life. His views reflect the socio-political tensions leading to the Civil War over issues of slavery and states' rights.

• The Anaconda Plan: The strategic plan devised by the Union during the American Civil War, aiming to blockade Southern ports and gain control of the Mississippi River, effectively splitting the Confederacy and restricting its resources.

• 'Contraband' in the Civil War: This term referred to escaped slaves who sought refuge with Union forces, representing a significant shift in wartime policy and contributing to early emancipation efforts.

• Aggressive War: Defined as a conflict initiated without justification or provocation, it often relates to imperialistic endeavors and expansionist strategies taken by nations.

• Significance of Vicksburg: The Union's victory at Vicksburg in July 1863 was a turning point in the Civil War, granting the North critical control over the Mississippi River and facilitating troop movements, effectively bisecting the Confederacy.

• Battle of Antietam: Fought on September 17, 1862, this battle is known as the bloodiest single day in American military history. It provided President Lincoln the political capital to issue the Emancipation Proclamation, shifting the war's focus to the issue of slavery.

• Battle of Gettysburg: Fought from July 1 to July 3, 1863, this pivotal battle was a major turning point of the Civil War, halting General Lee's invasion of the North and marking the beginning of the decline of the Confederacy.

• The Atlanta Campaign: A military campaign in 1864 led by General Sherman, aimed at capturing Atlanta—a critical supply hub in the Confederacy. Its success contributed to the Union victory and showcased the effectiveness of total war tactics.

• Sherman Neckties: A tactic used by Union troops during Sherman’s March to the Sea, where heated railroad tracks were twisted to render them unusable, demonstrating the application of total war principles aimed at crippling the South's infrastructure.

• Preliminary Emancipation Proclamation: Issued by Lincoln in 1862, this proclamation warned that slaves in rebelling states would be freed if they did not return to the Union by the end of the year, marking a decisive step towards emancipation.

• 'The Good Death' in the Civil War: A 19th-century ideal that emphasized dying honorably in battle or with dignity, which was challenged by the widespread carnage and mass deaths that characterized the Civil War.

• Different Models of Total War: Various models exist; some emphasize mass mobilization of society, while others focus on the blurring of distinctions between military and civilian targets, with extreme aims often characteristic of total war.

• State's Role in Total War: The state is crucial to total war, as it requires centralized control for effective mobilization of resources, conscription of soldiers, and planning for economic wartime efforts.

• Colonialism and Total War: Colonial conflicts frequently involved extreme violence and tactics that foreshadowed the total war strategies implemented in the 20th century, as colonial powers often utilized brutal methods to maintain control.

• Nation, State, and Nation-State: A clear distinction exists: a Nation refers to a cultural or ethnic group, a State is a political entity with defined borders and governance, while a Nation-State integrates both, aligning cultural identity with state policy, exemplified by countries like France and Germany.

• Examples of Total War in History: Total war elements can be observed in events such as the Thirty Years' War, the French Revolution, the American Civil War, and both World Wars, each reflecting varying degrees of societal mobilization and conflict extremity.