Closed Systems
Study Notes on Energy Analysis of Closed Systems
Moving Boundary Work
Moving boundary work (also known as boundary work or PdV work) is associated with the expansion or compression of a gas in devices like automotive engines and compressors. [1, 2]
During this process, the inner face of the piston moves, hence the name "moving boundary work." [2]
While thermodynamics can't precisely calculate the moving boundary work in real-world engines and compressors due to the high piston speeds and non-equilibrium conditions, it can be analysed for quasi-equilibrium processes, where the system remains near equilibrium throughout. [3, 4]
Quasi-equilibrium processes are good approximations for real engines with slow piston speeds, and they provide the theoretical maximum work output for engines and minimum work input for compressors. [4]
In a quasi-equilibrium process, the differential work (δWb) done as the piston moves a distance ds is given by: δWb = F ds = PA ds = P dV [5] where: F is the force on the piston A is the cross-sectional area of the piston P is the absolute pressure dV is the differential change in volume
The total boundary work (Wb) is obtained by integrating this differential work over the volume change from state 1 to state 2: Wb = ∫1 2 P dV [6]
This integral requires the relationship between P and V during the process, which is the equation of the process path on a P-V diagram. [6]
The magnitude of the work done during a quasi-equilibrium expansion or compression process equals the area under the process curve on a P-V diagram. [7]
The net work done during a cycle is the difference between the work done during expansion and the work done during compression. [8]
If the relationship between P and V is given as experimental data, the work can be determined graphically by calculating the area under the P-V curve. [9]
Energy Balance for Closed Systems
The energy balance for any closed system can be expressed as: Ein - Eout = ΔEsystem [10] where:
Ein represents energy transfer into the system
Eout represents energy transfer out of the system
ΔEsystem represents the change in the system's energy
For a closed system undergoing a cycle, the initial and final states are identical, meaning ΔEsystem = 0, simplifying the energy balance to: Ein = Eout [11]
As closed systems have no mass flow across their boundaries, their energy balance can be expressed in terms of heat (Q) and work (W) interactions as: Wnet,out = Qnet,in [12] This means the net work output during a cycle equals the net heat input.
Specific Heats
Specific heat is the energy needed to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a substance by one degree. [13]
There are two main types of specific heat:
Specific heat at constant volume (cv): The energy required to raise the temperature while keeping the volume constant. [13]
Specific heat at constant pressure (cp): The energy required to raise the temperature while keeping the pressure constant. [13]
cp is always greater than cv for a given substance, as at constant pressure, the system expands and requires energy for expansion work. [13]
Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats of Ideal Gases
The internal energy (u) of an ideal gas depends solely on its temperature: u = u(T). [14]
Similarly, the enthalpy (h) of an ideal gas is also a function of temperature only: h = h(T). [15]
As a consequence, the specific heats cv and cp of an ideal gas are also functions of temperature only. [15]
This means that at any given temperature, an ideal gas will have specific values for u, h, cv, and cp, regardless of its specific volume or pressure. [15]
The changes in internal energy (Δu) and enthalpy (Δh) of an ideal gas can be calculated as: Δu = u2 - u1 = ∫T1 T2 cv(T) dT (kJ/kg) [16] Δh = h2 - h1 = ∫T1 T2 cp(T) dT (kJ/kg) [17] where T1 and T2 are the initial and final temperatures, respectively.
Ideal-gas specific heats, also known as zero-pressure specific heats (cp0 and cv0), are specific heats of real gases at low pressures, where they closely approximate ideal gas behaviour. These are usually provided as third-degree polynomials in tables. [17, 18]
Over small temperature ranges, specific heat can be approximated as constant, leading to the simplified equations: Δu = cv,avg (T2 - T1) (kJ/kg) [19] Δh = cp,avg (T2 - T1) (kJ/kg) [20] where cv,avg and cp,avg are the average specific heats over the temperature interval.
Specific Heat Relations of Ideal Gases
For ideal gases, cp and cv are related by the following equation: cp = cv + R (kJ/kg·K) [21] where R is the gas constant.
When specific heats are given on a molar basis, the universal gas constant Ru is used instead of R: cp = cv + Ru (kJ/kmol·K) [22]
The specific heat ratio (k) is defined as: k = cp/cv [23]
Internal Energy, Enthalpy, and Specific Heats of Solids and Liquids
Incompressible substances have a constant specific volume (or density). [24]
Solids and liquids can be approximated as incompressible substances with high accuracy. [24]
For incompressible substances: cp = cv = c [25] Therefore, only one specific heat value (c) is needed.
Please note: This is not an exhaustive set of study notes on the topic. Always refer to your textbook and other learning materials for a complete understanding.