Psychology Revision

1A - Introduction to research 

• What is Psychology? - the scientific study of human mental states and behaviour

• What is Empirical evidence? -  information obtained through direct and systematic observation or experimentation
  

• What is Non-science? - ideas formed without empirical evidence or the use of scientific methods or principles
  

• What is Pseudoscience? - beliefs, theories, and practices that are mistakenly regarded as, or claim to be scientific, but are not because they do not use the methods of science

• What are 2 features of scientific and non-scientific ideas? - Scientific: 

  • aim to be objective

  • utilise and produce empirical evidence

• Non-scientific:

  • Non-objective

  • imprecise or vague

• What is the scientific method? - a procedure used to obtain knowledge that involves hypothesis formulation, testing, and retesting through processes of experimentation, observation, measurement, and recording

• What is a Theory? - a proposition or set of principles that is used to explain something or make predictions about relationships between concepts 

• What is a Model? - a representation of a concept, process, or behaviour, often made to simplify or make something easier to understand

• What is an Independent variable (IV)? - the variable for which quantities are manipulated (controlled, selected, or changed) by the researcher, and the variable that is assumed to have a direct effect on the dependent variable

• What is a Dependent variable (DV)? - the variable the researcher measures in an experiment for changes it may experience due to the effect of the independent variable

• What are Controlled variables? -  variables other than the IV that a researcher holds constant (controls) in an investigation, to ensure that changes in the DV are solely due to changes in the IV

1B - Scientific research methodologies

• What are Investigation methodologies (also known as research methodologies)? - any of the different processes, techniques and/or types of studies researchers use to obtain information about psychological phenomena
  

• What is a Controlled experiment? - a type of investigation in which the causal relationship between two variables is tested in a controlled environment; more specifically, the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable is tested while aiming to control all other variables
  

• What is a Case study? - an in depth investigation of an individual, group, or particular phenomenon (activity, behaviour, event, or problem) that contains a real or hypothetical situation and includes the complexities that would be encountered in the real world

• What is a Correlational study? - a type of non-experimental study in which researchers observe and measure the relationship between two or more variables without any active control or manipulation of them

• What is a Classification? - the arrangement of phenomena, objects, or events into manageable sets

• What is Identification? a process of recognition of phenomena as belonging to particular sets or possibly being part of a new or unique set

• What is Modelling? - the construction and/or manipulation of either a physical model, such as a small- or large-scale representation of an object, or a conceptual model that represents a system involving concepts that help people know, understand, or simulate the system

• What is Product, process, or system development? - the design or evaluation of an artefact, process, or system to meet a human need, which may involve technological applications, in addition to scientific knowledge and procedures

• What is Simulation? - a process of using a model to study the behaviour of a real or theoretical system

• What is an Experimental group? - the group of participants in an experiment who are exposed to a manipulated independent variable (i.e. a specific intervention or treatment)

• What is a Control group? - the group of participants in an experiment who receive no experimental treatment or intervention in order to serve as a baseline for comparison
  

• What is a within-subjects design? -  an experimental design in which participants complete every experimental condition
  

• What is a Between-subjects design (also known as independent-groups design or between-groups design)? - an experimental design in which individuals are divided into different groups and complete only one experimental condition

• What is a Mixed design? - an experimental design which combines elements of within-subjects and between-subjects designs

• What are 3 examples of fieldwork? - Direct observation, Qualitative interviews, and focus groups.

1C - Population, sample and sampling

• What is the Population (also known as research population)? -  the group of people who are the focus of the research and from which the sample is drawn 

• What is a Sample? - a subset of the research population who participate in a study

• What does it mean for results to be Generalisable? (also known as generalisability) - the ability for a sample’s results to be used to make conclusions about the wider research population

• What is a Sampling technique? -  the way a sample is selected from the population for a study

• What is Convenience sampling? - any sampling technique that involves selecting readily available members of the population, rather than using a random or systematic approach

• What is Random sampling? -  any sampling technique that uses a procedure to ensure every member of the population has the same chance of being selected

• What is Stratified Sampling - any sampling technique that involves selecting people from the population in a way that ensures that its strata (subgroups) are proportionally represented in the sample 

• What is Allocation? - the process of assigning participants to experimental conditions or groups

1D - Preventing error and bias

• What are Extraneous variables? - any variable that is not the independent variable but may cause an unwanted effect on the dependent variable

• What are Confounding variables? - a variable that has directly and systematically affected the dependent variable, apart from the independent variable

• What are Participant-related variables (also known as individual participant differences)? - characteristics of a study’s participants that may affect the results

• What are Order effects? - the tendency for the order in which participants complete experimental conditions to have an effect on their behaviour

• What is Placebo? - an inactive substance or treatment

• What is the placebo effect? - when participants respond to an inactive substance or treatment as a result of their expectations or beliefs

• What is the Experimenter effect (also known as experimenter bias)? - when the expectations of the researcher affect the results of an experiment 

• What are situational variables? - any environmental factor that may affect the dependent variable

• What are non-standardised instructions and procedures? - when directions and procedures differ across participants or experimental conditions 

• What are Demand Characteristics? - cues in an experiment that may signal to a participant the intention of the study and influence their behaviour

• What is counterbalancing? - a method to reduce order effects that involves ordering experimental conditions in a certain way

• What is a Single Blind Procedure? - a procedure in which participants are unaware of the experimental group or condition they have been allocated to

• What is a Double Blind Procedure? - a procedure in which both participants and the experimenter do not know which conditions or groups participants are allocated to 

1E - Organising & Interpreting Data

• What is Data? - information used as part of or generated by an investigation
  

• What is Primary Data? - data collected first-hand by a researcher

• What is Secondary Data? - data sourced from others’ prior research

• What is Qualitative Data? - data that is expressed non-numerically

• What is Objective Data? - factual data that is observed and measured independently of personal opinion

• What is Subjective Data? - data that is informed by personal opinion, perception, or interpretation

• What are Descriptive Statistics? - statistics that summarise, organise, and describe data

• What are Measures Of Central Tendency? - descriptive statistics that summarise a data set by describing the centre of the distribution of the data set with a single value

• What are Measures of Variability? - statistics that summarise and describe the spread and distribution of a data set

• What is the Range? - a measure of variability that is a value obtained by subtracting the lowest value in a data set from the highest value 

• What is Standard deviation? - a measure of variability, expressed as a value that describes the spread of data around the mean

1F Evaluating research

• What is Accuracy? - How close a measurement is to the true value of the quantity being measured

• What is the True value? - the value, or range of values, that would be found if the quantity could be measured perfectly

• What is Precision? - How closely a set of measurement values agree with each other

• What are Systematic errors? - errors in data that differ from the true value by a consistent amount

• What are Random Errors? -  errors in data that are unsystematic and occur due to chance

• What is Uncertainty? - the lack of exact knowledge relating to something being measured due to potential sources of variation in knowledge

• What is Repeatability? - the extent to which successive measurements or studies produce the same results when carried out under identical conditions within a short period of time (e.g. same procedure, observer, instrument, instructions, and setting)

• What is reproducibility? - the extent to which successive measurements or studies produce the same results when repeated under different conditions (e.g. different participants, time, observer, and/or environmental conditions)

• What is Internal Validity? - the extent to which an investigation truly measures or investigates what it claims to

• What is External Validity? - the extent to which the results of an investigation can be applied to similar individuals in different settings

1G Ethical considerations

• What are Ethical Concepts? - the broad, moral guiding principles that people should consider when conducting research, practising psychology, or when analysing a psychological issue or debate
  

• What is Beneficence? - the commitment to maximising benefits and minimising the risks and harms involved in taking a particular position or course of action

• What is Integrity? - the commitment to searching for knowledge and understanding, and the honest reporting of all sources of information and results, whether favourable or unfavourable, in ways that permit scrutiny and contribute to public knowledge and understanding

• What is Justice? - the moral obligation to ensure that there is fair consideration of competing claims; that there is no unfair burden on a particular group from an action; and that there is fair distribution and access to the benefits of an action

• What is Non-Maleficence? - the principle of avoiding causing harm

• What is Respect? - the consideration of the extent to which living things have an intrinsic value and/ or instrumental value; giving due regard to the welfare, liberty and autonomy, beliefs, perceptions, customs and cultural heritage of both the individual and the collective; consideration of the capacity of living things to make their own decisions; and when living things have diminished capacity to make their own decisions, ensuring that they are empowered where possible and protected as necessary
  
  

• What are Ethical Guidelines? -  the procedures and principles used to ensure that participants are safe and respected

• What is Confidentiality? - the privacy, protection and security of a participant’s personal information in terms of personal details and the anonymity of individual results, including the removal of identifying elements

• What are Informed Consent Procedures? - processes that ensure participants understand the nature and purpose of the experiment, including potential risks (both physical and psychological), before agreeing to participate in the study

• What is Deception? -  the act of intentionally misleading participants about the true nature of a study or procedure

• What is Debriefing? -  a procedure that ensures that, at the end of the experiment, the participant leaves understanding the experimental aim, results and conclusions

• What is Voluntary Participation? - a principle that ensures there is no coercion or pressure put on the participant to partake in an experiment, and they freely choose to be involved

• What are Withdrawal Rights? - the right of participants to be able to discontinue their involvement in an experiment at any time during, or after the conclusion of, an experiment without penalty

2A The nervous system

• What is the Central nervous system? - a major division of the nervous system comprising the brain and spinal cord, which receives neural messages from and transmits neural messages to the peripheral nervous system

• What are the components of the central nervous system? - Spinal cord and Brain

• What is the Peripheral Nervous System? - a major division of the nervous system comprising every neuron in the body outside the central nervous system

• What are the subdivisions of the Peripheral Nervous System? - Somatic Nervous System & Autonomic Nervous System

• What is the Somatic Nervous System? - a division of the peripheral nervous system that transmits neural messages related to voluntary motor movement

• What is the Autonomic Nervous System? - a division of the peripheral nervous system that regulates visceral muscles, organs, and glands, and transmits neural messages to the central nervous system about their activity

• What are the two sections of the Autonomic nervous system? - Sympathetic Nervous System and Parasympathetic Nervous System

• What is the sympathetic nervous system? - a division of the autonomic nervous system that activates visceral muscles, organs, and glands, preparing the body to respond to a threat or stressor

• What are visceral muscles, organs and glands? -  muscles, organs, and glands not connected to the skeleton that are predominantly self-regulating and do not require conscious control

• What is the parasympathetic nervous system? - a division of the autonomic nervous system that maintains the optimal and balanced functioning of visceral muscles, organs, and glands

• What is a neuron? - a nerve cell that receives and transmits neural information

• What are the three types of neurons? - Motor neurons, sensory neurons and interneurons.

• What are Motor neurons (efferent neurons)? - neurons that transmit neural messages about motor movement from the central nervous system to the peripheral nervous system

• What are sensory neurons (afferent neurons)? -  neurons that transmit neural messages about bodily sensations from the peripheral nervous system to the central nervous system 

• What are interneurons? - neurons that transfer neural messages between sensory neurons and motor neurons

2B - Conscious and unconscious responses

• What is a Conscious response? - a deliberate and voluntary action that is initiated by the brain and performed intentionally by the body

• What is a sensory receptor? - a nerve ending that detects internal sensations in the body and external sensations from the environment

• What are the steps of the conscious response to internal and external sensory stimuli? - 1. The sensory stimulus comes into contact with sensory receptors, which are nerve endings that detect internal sensations in the body and external sensations from the environment. 2. This sensory neural message is transmitted via afferent pathways in the somatic nervous system, and then the spinal cord, to the brain. 3.The brain processes this sensory information, coordinating and initiating a conscious motor response. 4. This motor neural message is transmitted via efferent pathways in the spinal cord, and then the somatic nervous system, to skeletal muscles. 5.The skeletal muscles carry out the conscious motor response to the sensory stimulus

• What is an Unconscious response?  an automatic and involuntary action that is performed by the body independently of the brain

• What is the spinal reflex? - an unconscious response to sensory stimuli that is initiated by interneurons in the spinal cord independently of the brain

• What is the reflex arc? - the path along which the neural signal is transmitted as part of the spinal reflex

2C - Neurotransmitters and neuromodulators

• What is the neural synapse? - the region that includes the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron, the synaptic gap, and the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron 

• What is the presynaptic neuron? - the neuron that releases neurochemicals into the neural synapse

• What is the axon terminal? - the end of a neuron that releases neurochemicals into the neural synapse

• What is the synaptic gap? - the space between the presynaptic neuron and the postsynaptic neuron

• What is the Postsynaptic neuron? - the neuron that receives neurochemicals from the neural synapse

• What is a Dendrite? - a branched extension of a neuron on which receptor sites are located

• What is a Receptor site? - a protein molecule on the dendrites of a neuron that receives neurochemicals 

• What is a neurochemical? - a chemical substance that transmits neural information within the nervous system

• What is synaptic transmission? - the chemical conveyance of neural information between two neurons across a neural synapse

• What is the process of synaptic transmission? - 1. Neurochemicals are produced in the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron. 2. Neurochemicals are released from the axon terminals of the presynaptic neuron into the synaptic gap. 3. Neurochemicals bind to receptor sites on the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron. 4. Neurochemicals affect the postsynaptic neuron, either triggering or inhibiting a response.

• What is a neurotransmitter? - a chemical molecule that has an effect on one or two postsynaptic neurons

• What is an Action potential? - an electrical impulse that travels down the axon of a neuron

• What is the Excitatory effect?- when the neurotransmitter increases the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing an action potential

• What are the two types of neurotransmitters? - Excitatory and Inhibitory neurotransmitters

• What are the main excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters? - Glutamate and GABA

• What is a neuromodulator? - a chemical molecule that has an effect on multiple postsynaptic neurons

• What are the main neuromodulators? - Serotonin & Dopamine

• What is serotonin? - a neuromodulator primarily responsible for the regulation of mood and sleep

• What is dopamine? - a neuromodulator primarily responsible for voluntary motor movement, the experience of pleasure, and reward based learning

2D - Synaptic plasticity

• What is Synaptic Plasticity? - the ability of synaptic connections to change over time in response to activity or experience

• What is Sprouting? - the ability of dendrites or axons to develop new extensions or branches

• What is rerouting? - the ability of a neuron that is connected to a damaged neuron to create an alternative synaptic connection with an undamaged neuron

• What is Pruning? -  the elimination of synaptic connections that are not adequately activated

• What is long term potentiation? - the long-lasting and experience-dependent strengthening of synaptic connections that are regularly coactivated

• What is long term depression? - the long-lasting and experience-dependent weakening of synaptic connections between neurons that are not regularly coactivated

3A Stress 

• What is Stress? - a psychological and physiological experience that occurs when an individual encounters something of significance that demands their attention and/or efforts to cope 

• What is a stressor? - a stimulus (internal or external) that prompts the stress response

• What is an internal stressor? - a stimulus from within a person’s body that prompts the stress response

• What is an external stressor? - a stimulus from outside of a person’s body that prompts the stress response

• What is Distress? - a form of stress characterised by a negative psychological state

• What is Eustress? - a form of stress characterised by a positive psychological state 

• What is acute stress? - a form of stress characterised by intense psychological and physiological symptoms that are brief in duration

• What is the fight or flight or freeze response? - an involuntary and automatic response to a threat that takes the form of either escaping it, confronting it, or freezing in the face of it

• What is chronic stress? - Chronic stress a form of stress that endures for several months or longer 

• What is cortisol? - a hormone that is released in times of stress to aid the body in initiating and maintaining heightened arousal 

3B - Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome 

• What is General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS)?  -  a biological model involving three stages of physiological reactions that a person experiences in response to a persistent stressor

• What are the stages of Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome? - Shock, Counter shock, alarm reaction, resistance, exhaustion

• What is Alarm Reaction in relation to GAS? - the first stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome involving the initial decrease and subsequent increase in bodily arousal in response to an immediate stressor

• What is Shock in relation to GAS? - the first substage of the alarm reaction stage involving decreased bodily arousal for a brief period of time following the initial exposure to a stressor

• What is Counter Shock in relation to GAS? - the second substage of the alarm reaction stage in which sympathetic nervous system responses occur that mobilise the body to respond to the stressor

• What is resistance in relation to GAS? - the second stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome involving maintaining high levels of bodily arousal in response to a persistent stressor

• What is exhaustion in relation to GAS? - the third stage of the General Adaptation Syndrome involving the depletion of energy levels and bodily resources, resulting in an inability to cope with the stressor

• What are the strengths of GAS? - The GAS recognises a predictable pattern of physiological responses associated with distinct stages and substages, which can be measured in individuals, GAS also recognises the relationship between chronic stress and illness, and also provides objective, empirical data about the biological responses of stress.

• What are the limitations of GAS? - The GAS is based on research that was conducted on rats, it also only looks at the biological responses of stress, and only prescribes a uniform model for all kinds of stress.

3C - Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional Model of Stress and Coping

• What is Appraisal? -  An assessment or evaluation of stimuli

• What is a Primary appraisal? - the initial process of evaluating the nature of an incoming stressor, specifically the kind of stress it might cause

• What are the 3 initial ways a stressor can be appraised? - Benign positive, Irrelevant and stressful

• What is benign positive in relation to primary appraisal? - an initial appraisal of a stimulus as neutral or good that does not cause stress for the individual

• What is irrelevant in relation to primary appraisal? - an initial appraisal of a stimulus as a non-issue for the individual

• What is stressful in relation to primary appraisal? - an initial appraisal of a stimulus as a source of worry or emotional significance for the individual

• What is harm/loss as a further appraisal when a stimulus is deemed stressful? -  a further appraisal of a stressor as having caused some damage to the individual

• What is Threat  as a further appraisal when a stimulus is deemed stressful? - a further appraisal of a stressor as potentially causing damage to the individual in the future

• What is Challenge  as a further appraisal when a stimulus is deemed stressful? -  a further appraisal of a stressor as potentially providing a positive opportunity for growth or change for the individual

• What is a Secondary appraisal? - the process of evaluating the resources required and available in order to cope with a stressor

• What is emotion focused coping? - the use of coping strategies that target the emotional components of a stressor, dealing with it indirectly rather than confronting its source

• What is problem focused coping? - the use of coping strategies that directly target the source of the stressor, aiming to reduce it in a practical way

• What are the strengths of  Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional Model of Stress and Coping? - Human subjects were used as a source of data during the creation of the model, Helps to explain why the same stressor may have different effects on different people

• What are the limitations of Lazarus and Folkman’s Transactional Model of Stress and Coping? - Individuals are not necessarily aware of why they feel certain kinds of stress, as suggested by primary appraisal, Does not include biological processes of stress, Cannot easily be tested by research, as human subjects are not necessarily consciously aware at all stages of appraisal

3D The gut-brain axis

• What is the Gut (also known as the gastrointestinal tract)? - the long flexible tube from mouth to anus that is the passageway involved in digestion

• What is microbiota? - all of the microorganisms that live in the gut

• What is the gut microbiome? - all of the genes of the microorganisms that live in the gut

• What is the Gut-brain axis? - the bidirectional connection between the gut and the brain through the enteric and central nervous systems

• What is the enteric nervous system? - the network of nerves in the gut and is a subdivision of the autonomic nervous system

• What is the vagus nerve? - the longest cranial nerve that connects the gut and the brain, enabling them to communicate

3E Coping with stress

• What is Context-specific effectiveness? - when the coping strategy or mechanism used is appropriate for the unique demands of the stressor

• What is Coping flexibility? - an individual’s ability to adjust or change their coping strategies depending on the unique and changing demands of a stressor

• What are Approach strategies? - coping strategies that directly confront the source of the stress

• What are Avoidance strategies? -  coping strategies that evade the stressor, seeking to indirectly reduce stress

4A Classical conditioning

• What is Learning? - the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, or behaviours through experience

• What are Behaviourist approaches to learning? - theories that propose learning occurs by interacting with the external environment

• What is Classical conditioning? - a process of learning through the involuntary association between a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus that results in a conditioned response 

• What are the three stages of classical conditioning? - 1. before conditioning 2. during conditioning 3. after conditioning.

• What does ‘Before conditioning’ refer to? - the first stage of classical conditioning, during which the neutral stimulus has no associations and therefore does not produce any significant response

• What is the Neutral Stimulus? -  the stimulus that produces no significant response prior to conditioning e.g the bell during pavlov’s experiment prior to conditioning

• What is the Unconditioned stimulus? - the stimulus that produces an unconscious response e.g presentation of food

• What is the Unconditioned response? - a naturally occurring behaviour in response to a stimulus

• What does ‘During Conditioning’ refer to? - the second stage of classical conditioning, during which the neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the unconditioned stimulus, producing the unconditioned response e.g repeated presentation of the sound of the bell (NS) with the dog’s food (UCS), which in turn produced the UCR of salivation

• What does ‘After conditioning’ refer to? - the third stage of classical conditioning, during which the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus, producing a conditioned response e.g sound of the bell ultimately becomes the conditioned stimulus after conditioning has occurred.

• What is the Conditioned stimulus? - the stimulus (originally the neutral stimulus) that produces a conditioned response after being repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus

• What is the Conditioned response? - the response that occurs involuntarily after the conditioned stimulus is presented

4B Operant conditioning

• What is Operant Conditioning? - a three-phase learning process that involves an antecedent, behaviour, and consequence, whereby the consequence of a behaviour determines the likelihood that it will reoccur

• What is the antecedent? - the stimulus or event that precedes and often elicits a particular behaviour

• What is Behaviour (in relation to operant conditioning)? - the voluntary actions that occur in the presence of the antecedent

• What is Consequence? - the outcome of the behaviour, which determines the likelihood that it will occur again

• What is Reinforcement? -  a consequence that increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring

• What is Positive reinforcement? -  the addition of a desirable stimulus, which in turn increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring

• What is Negative reinforcement? - the removal of an undesirable stimulus, which in turn increases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring

• What is Punishment? -  a consequence that decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring

• What is Positive punishment? - the addition of an undesirable stimulus, which in turn decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring

• What is Negative punishment (also known as response cost)? - the removal of a desirable stimulus, which in turn decreases the likelihood of a behaviour reoccurring

4C Observational learning

• What are Social-cognitive approaches to learning? -  theories that propose learning takes place in a social setting and involves various cognitive processes

• What is Observational learning (also known as social learning, vicarious conditioning, or modelling)? - a process of learning that involves watching the behaviour of a model and the associated consequence of that behaviour

• What is a Model (in relation to observational learning)? -  the individual who is performing the behaviour that is being observed

• What is Attention (in relation to observational learning)? - the first stage of observational learning in which individuals actively focus on the model’s behaviour and the consequences of the behaviour

• What is Retention (in relation to observational learning)? -  the second stage of observational learning in which individuals create a mental representation to remember the model’s demonstrated behaviour 

• What is Reproduction (in relation to observational learning)? - the third stage of observational learning in which the individual must have the physical and mental capabilities to replicate the behaviour

• What is Motivation (in relation to observational learning)? -  the fourth stage of observational learning in which the individual must want to reproduce the behaviour

• What is Reinforcement (in relation to observational learning)? - the fifth stage of observational learning in which the individual receives a positive consequence for the behaviour which makes them more likely to reproduce the behaviour again in the future

4D - Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander approaches to learning

• What are Systems of knowledge (in relation to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander approaches to learning)? -  knowledge and skills are based on interconnected social, physical, and spiritual understandings, and in turn, inform survival and contribute to a strong sense of identity

• What is Country (in relation to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander cultures)? - traditional lands of a particular language or cultural group, including both geographical boundaries and the spiritual, emotional, and intellectual connections to and within it

• What does Multimodal mean? - using a variety of methods

• What is the are the 8 ways of Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander approaches to learning? - Story sharing, learning maps, community links, deconstruct/reconstruct, non-linear, land links, symbols and images, non verbal

5A - Atkinson-Shiffrin multi-store model of memory

Memory

• What is Memory? - Memory is an active information processing system that receives, organises, stores and recovers information. Involves three key processes: Encoding, Storage and Retrieval

• Explain the three processes of Memory. - Sensory Information → Encoding: Converts Information into a usable form →  Storage: Retain information for a period of time → Retrieval: Accessing information that has been previously stored

Atkinson-Shiffrin's multi-store model of memory

• What is Atkinson-Shiffrin's multi-store model of memory? a model of memory which outlines the three separate stores of memory each of which interact through the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval

• What are the three separate models in Atkinson-Shiffrin's multi-store model of memory? -  

Sensory → Short-term memory → Long-term memory

• In reference to Atkinson-Shiffrin’s multi-store model of memory, What is Sensory Information? - a store of memory which very briefly stores raw information detected by the senses

• In reference to Atkinson-Shiffrin’s multi-store model of memory, What is Short-term memory? - a store of memory that temporarily stores a limited amount of information that is consciously being attended to and actively manipulated

• In reference to Atkinson-Shiffrin’s multi-store model of memory, What is Long-term memory? - a store of memory in which a potentially unlimited amount of information is stored for a relatively permanent amount of time 

• In reference to Atkinson-Shiffrin’s multi-store model of memory, what are the key characteristics of Sensory memory? - 

  • Entry point for sensory information

  • Filters out unnecessary information

  • Stores information long enough so we perceive the world as continuous

  • Capacity: unlimited

  • Duration: 4 seconds

• In reference to Atkinson-Shiffrin’s multi-store model of memory, what are the key characteristics of Short-term memory? - 

  • Activity manipulates encoded information, so it remains in conscious awareness

  • Capacity: 7 ± 2 items (or 5–9 items)

    • Capacity can be enhanced through chunking.

  • Duration: 12–30 seconds

    • Duration can be enhanced through maintenance and elaborative rehearsal

• In reference to Atkinson-Shiffrin’s multi-store model of memory, what are the key characteristics of Long-term memory? - 

  • Stores information that has been semantically encoded for future use.

  • Capacity: unlimited

  • Duration: relatively permanent

5B - The psychobiological process of memory

Types of long term memory

• What are the two types of Long-term memory? - Explicit and Implicit

• Define Explicit memory. - a type of long-term memory that is consciously retrieved

• Define Implicit memory. - a type of long-term memory that is unconsciously retrieved

• What are the two types of Explicit memory? - Semantic and episodic

• What are two types of Implicit memory? - Procedural memory (simple motor response like riding a bike) and Classically Conditioned memory (e.g fear and anxiety)

• What is the difference between Episodic and Semantic memory? - Episodic memory contains memories of distinct personal events (or episodes) that are associated with a particular time and place while semantic memory refers to the organised factual knowledge that you possess about the outside world.

Brain Structure Involved in memory

• What are the 5 parts of the brain involved in memory, and are they implicit or explicit? - Neocortex: Explicit, Basal Ganglia: Implicit, Hippocampus: Explicit, Amygdala: Implicit, Cerebellum: Implicit

• In terms of memory, what is the use of the Neocortext? - 

  • Stores explicit memories, usually in areas relevant to specific sensory processing.

  • Also links together & gathers different components of a memory during retrieval.

• In terms of memory, what is the use of the Basal Ganglia? - 

  • Encodes implicit memories to do with habits.

  • Encodes and initiates complex well-practised sequences of movement.

• In terms of memory, what is the use of the Hippocampus? - 

  • Formation and retrieval of explicit memories.

  • Consolidation of explicit memories.

  • Transfers new memories to relevant parts of the brain for permanent long-term storage.

  • Links memories to emotions.

• In terms of memory, what is the use of the Cerebellum? - 

  • Coordinates fine muscle movements, regulates posture and balance.

  • The encoding and storage of implicit simple memories of motor skills and classically conditioned simple reflexes (eye blink, leg movement or head turn).

• In terms of memory, what is the use of the Amygala? - 

  • Formation of implicit, emotional based memories related to fear and/or aggression.

  • Regulation of emotions such as fear and/or aggression.

• What is the interaction between the hippocampus, amygdala and neocortex in memory? - 

5C - The role of episodic and semantic memory

• In relation to a Possible imagined future of planning what to wear to semi-formal party on a 30 degree day, What is the role of Episodic memory? -

  • Recalling the memory of receiving compliments last time you wore a particular outfit

  • Recalling feeling too warm in an outfit last time you wore it 

• In relation to a Possible imagined future of planning what to wear to semi-formal party on a 30 degree day, What is the role of Semantic Memory? - 

  • Understanding what is meant by the dress code ‘semi-formal’ 

  • Knowing what kind of clothing to wear on a hot day

• What is Alzheimer’s disease? - a neurodegenerative disease that involves the progressive loss of neurons in the brain and is characterised by memory decline.

• What is Aphantasia? - a phenomenon in which individuals lack the capacity to generate mental imagery.

5D - Mnemonic devices to increase encoding, storage and retrieval

• What is Mnemonics? - devices or techniques used to aid the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

• What are three Mnemonics that are useful for retaining and recalling written information? - 

  • Method of loci

  • Acronym

  • Acrostic

• What is the Method Of Loci? - The method of loci involves committing a familiar location or sequence of locations to memory, and visually linking these locations with information that needs to be recalled. (also known as memory palace)

• What is an Acronym and how does it enhance memory? - An acronym involves using the first letter of each word to be remembered to create a pronounceable word or name. Each letter acts as a retrieval cue for the first letter of each word to be recalled.

• What is an Acrostic and how does it enhance memory? - An acrostic is a phrase (or poem) where the first letter of each word functions as a cue to help with recall. The first letter of each word acts as a retrieval cue for the first letter of each word to be recalled.

6A - Sleep as a psychological construct

• What is Consciousness? -  the level of awareness an individual has of their thoughts, feelings, perceptions, and existence.

• What is a Psychological construct? -  An agreed upon description and understanding of psychological phenomena that cannot be overtly measured or observed

• What is Normal waking consciousness (NWC)? - a state of consciousness in which an individual is awake and aware

• What is Altered state of consciousness (ASC)? - a state of consciousness that is distinctly different from normal waking consciousness in terms of quality of experience and levels of awareness

• What is Naturally occurring altered states of consciousness? - a type of altered state of consciousness that occurs without intervention

• What is Induced altered states of consciousness? - a type of altered state of consciousness that occurs due to a purposeful action or aid

• What is the Consciousness continuum? - a visual representation of the different states of consciousness that progress from lower levels of awareness to higher levels of awareness

• What is Sleep? - a regular and naturally occurring altered state of consciousness that involves a loss of awareness and disengagement with internal and external stimuli

• What is REM (rapid eye movement) sleep? - a type of sleep characterised by rapid eye movement, high levels of brain activity, and low levels of physical activity

• What is NREM (non-rapid eye movement) sleep? - a type of sleep characterised by a lack of rapid eye movement and is subdivided into three different stages

• What is a Sleep episode? - the full duration of time spent asleep.

• What is a Sleep cycle? - an approximately 90-minute-period that repeats during a sleep episode in which an individual progresses through stages of REM and NREM sleep

• What are the stages of sleep? - Wake, NREM 1, NREM 2, NREM 3, and REM sleep

• Briefly explain each NREM stage of sleep. - NREM 1: The sleeper is transitioning from awake to a light sleep, will experience a hypnagogic state. NREM 2: The sleeper is still in a relatively light sleep, majority of time spent asleep is in this stage. NREM 3: the sleeper is in a deep stage of sleep. Difficult to be woken up. If woken during this stage, you will likely to feel drowsy and disoriented.

• Briefly explain the REM stage of sleep. - The sleeper is considered to have a highly active brain and a less active body during REM sleep. The sleeper is virtually paralysed during REM sleep. REM is a relatively light stage of sleep; despite the muscle paralysis, the brain is active and sleepers can be woken fairly easily. Vivid dreaming tends to occur during REM sleep. The sleeper frequently recalls dreams when woken during REM sleep.

6B - Measuring sleep

• What are 5 ways of measuring sleep? - 

  • Electroencephalograph (EEG) 

  • Electromyograph (EMG) 

  • Electro-oculograph (EOG) 

  • Sleep diaries 

  • Video monitoring.

• What are some of the features measuring sleep can record? - 

  • The onset of sleep

  • Sleep duration

  • Sleep quality

  • Awakenings during sleep

  • Any body movements

  • Wake-up time.

• What is Electroencephalograph (EEG)? - a device that detects, amplifies, and records the electrical activity of the brain.

• What is Electromyograph (EMG)? - a device that detects, amplifies, and records the electrical activity of the body’s muscles

• What is Electro-oculograph (EOG)? - a device that detects, amplifies, and records the electrical activity of the muscles responsible for eye movement

• What is a Sleep diary? - Sleep diaries are a subjective, self-report tool used by a person to track their own sleep and wake patterns. They aim to identify any patterns or habits that cause sleep trouble, and they provide the sleep specialist with a personal and subjective account of the quantity and quality of sleep being experienced.

• What is Video Monitoring in relation to Measuring Sleep? - During a sleep study, video monitoring is used to collect qualitative visual and audio information about a person’s sleep. Video monitoring is used alongside EEGs, EOGs and EMGs. It can validate the data collected by these devices to show exactly what activity is occurring while a person is asleep, such as their:

  • sleeping positions

  • specific movements

  • laboured breathing

  • sleep talking

  • teeth grinding.

6C - Regulation of sleep-wake patterns

• In relation to sleep wake patterns, what is Biological rhythms and what are they? - Biological rhythms are repeated biological processes that are regulated by internal mechanisms. There are two different types of biological rhythms that are related to our sleep-wake patterns: circadian and ultradian rhythms.

• What is Circadian rhythm? - biological and behavioural changes that occur as part of a cycle that lasts around 24 hours

• What is the Sleep-wake cycle? - a 24-hour-cycle that is made up of time spent sleeping and time spent awake and alert

• What are Ultradian rhythms? - Biological and behavioural changes that occur in a cycle that lasts less than 24 hours

• In relation to sleep wake patterns, what are the two types of sleep and what characteristics do they have? - REM (rapid eye movement) sleep is a type of sleep characterised by rapid eye movement, high levels of brain activity, and low levels of physical activity. NREM (non-rapid eye movement) sleep is a type of sleep characterised by a lack of rapid eye movement and is subdivided into three different stages.

• What is the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN)? - an area of the hypothalamus that is responsible for regulating an individual’s sleep-wake patterns

• How does the SCN regulate the sleep-wake cycle? - The SCN receives information from both external and internal cues to help modulate the circadian rhythm. External cues involve information from the environment, such as the presence or absence of light. Internal cues involve information that originates within the body (such as the expression and suppression of particular genes, known as clock genes).

• What is the Pineal gland? - A gland in the brain responsible for the production and release of melatonin

• What is Melatonin? - A hormone released by the pineal gland typically at night-time to induce sleep as part of the sleep wake cycle

• What is Cortisol? - A hormone released by the adrenal gland(signalled by the adrenal cortex) that is responsible for increasing alertness and maintaining heightened arousal

6D - Sleep across the lifespan

• What are all the stages of life span and their age range? - 

  • Newborn (0-3 months)

  • Infant (4-11 Months)

  • Toddler (1-2 years)

  • Preschooler (3-5 years)

  • School-age children (6-13 years)

  • Adolescent (14-17 years)

  • Young Adult (18-25 years)

  • Adult (26-64 years)

  • Older Adult (65+ years)

• What is the recommended sleep for a Newborn and what is the explanation for their sleep patterns? - 14-17 hours of sleep (REM 50%/NREM 50%). Newborns require the highest amount of total sleep for rapid growth and development. Newborns experience the highest proportion of REM sleep, as REM sleep may boost Brain growth and development, and help consolidate learning and memory. Muscle twitches that occur during periods of complete relaxation and immobility in REM sleep may help newborns develop their sensorimotor system, coordinating sensory experiences (e.g. seeing, hearing) with motor actions (e.g. reaching, touching)

• What is the recommended sleep for a Infant and what is the explanation for their sleep patterns? - 12-16 hours of sleep (REM 30-40%/NREM 60-70%). Infants begin to sleep for longer periods at a time as their circadian rhythm develops a more regular sleep pattern following day-night cycles.

• What is the recommended sleep for a Toddler and what is the explanation for their sleep patterns? - 11-14 hours of sleep (REM 25-30%/NREM 70-75%). By the time a person is a toddler, the purporting of REM sleep has had its greatest decline, and only decreases a small amount over the rest of the life span

• What is the recommended sleep for a Preschooler and what is the explanation for their sleep patterns? - 10-13 hours (REM 25%/NREM 75%). During the preschool years, the timing of the circadian rhythm may advance, and sleep shifts to earlier in the evening as children begin to drop their daytime naps.

• What is the recommended sleep for a School-aged child and what is the explanation for their sleep patterns? - 9-11 hours of sleep (REM 20%/NREM 80%). From early to late childhood years, the timing of the circadian rhythm gradually delays, and sleep shifts to later in the evening.

• What is the recommended sleep for a Adolescent and what is the explanation for their sleep patterns? - 8-10 hours of sleep (REM 20%/NREM 80%). Adolescents experience a delay in the circadian rhythm because of a hormonally determined shift in melatonin release to 1-2 hours later than other age groups. This can cause a preference for a later bedtime, resulting in fewer hours of sleep than needed because of early waking for school. In this age group, increasing school-related requirements, increasing independence and easy access to constant entertainment and social networks also contribute to delayed bedtime.

• What is the recommended sleep for a Young Adult and what is the explanation for their sleep patterns? - 7-9 hours of sleep (REM 20%/NREM 80%). Sleep patterns in young adults can alter because of psychosocial factors such as tertiary study, work requirements, social schedules and increased independence. A circadian phase advance begins towards the end of this stage, resulting in a preference for earlier sleep time. Melatonin concentrations also begin to decline after puberty.

• What is the recommended sleep for a Adult and what is the explanation for their sleep patterns? - 7-9 hours of sleep (REM 20%/NREM 80%). Adult sleep patterns can alter as a result of lifestyle changes such as caring for infants and children, changing work and social requirements, development of health problems and changing family dynamics like balancing work with parenthood. Later in this stage, NREM3 sleep begins to decline and is replaced by NREM2 sleep. Melatonin concentrations continue to decline over adulthood.

• What is the recommended sleep for an Older Adult and what is the explanation for their sleep patterns? - 7-8 hours of sleep (REM 18-20%/NREM 80-82%). Sleep patterns in older adults can alter because of lifestyle changes such as retirement, increased health issues including sleep disorders, physical inactivity, decreased social interactions, increased medication use, change of living arrangements and bereavement. A circadian phase advance occurs, and less sleep may be achieved if a person resists the body;s preference for an earlier bedtime and earlier awakening. Amount of NREM3 sleep continues to decline and may not occur at all, replaced with NREM2 sleep. During older adulthood there is an increase in sleep latency (the time taken to fall asleep) and multiple awakenings occur. Melatonin concentrations continue to decline. The shorter total sleep in this stage may be due to the impaired ability to obtain sleep, rather than a reduced need for sleep.

7A - Sleep Deprivation

• What is sleep deprivation? - Inadequate quantity and/ or quality of sleep

• What is full sleep deprivation? - When an individual has no sleep within a 24-hour period

• What is Partial sleep deprivation? - When an individual sleeps for some duration within a 24-hour-period, but the sleep duration is too short, or the quality of sleep is poor

• What are the effects of sleep deprivation? - Both full and partial sleep deprivation have negative effects on an individual’s ability to function. Specifically, they have adverse effects on people’s emotions, behaviours, and ability to think clearly. These can be described as: 

  • affective effects 

  • behavioural effects 

  • cognitive effects

• In relation to sleep deprivation, what are the Affective effects? - (relating to sleep deprivation) the changes in emotions and emotional responses that arise from sleep deprivation. When sleep deprived, you may have trouble regulating or controlling your emotions. For example, when very sleep deprived, you may get overly annoyed when your parents ask you to do a regular household chore.

• In relation to sleep deprivation, what are the Behavioural effects? - (relating to sleep deprivation) the changes in actions and the ability to control them that arise from sleep deprivation. When sleep deprived, for example, you may:

• struggle to control your behaviour

• participate in more risk-taking or impulsive behaviour

• take longer to finish tasks

• have reduced productivity and work efficiency.

• In relation to sleep deprivation, what are the Cognitive effects? - (relating to sleep deprivation) the changes in mental processes that arise from sleep deprivation. When sleep deprived, for example, you may:

• have trouble with memory

• have a decreased alertness

• have poor concentration

• impaired decision-making and problem-solving

• make poorer judgements

• experience a lack of motivation.

• What is Blood alcohol concentration (BAC)? - a measure of how much alcohol is in a person’s bloodstream

• What is the comparison between BAC and sleep deprivation? - a BAC of 0.05 is roughly equivalent to 17 hours of sleep deprivation (partial sleep deprivation). a BAC of 0.10 is roughly equivalent to 24 hours of sleep deprivation (full sleep deprivation).

7B - Circadian rhythm sleep disorders

• What are Sleep disorders? - disturbances to typical sleeping and waking patterns

• What are Circadian rhythm sleep disorders (CRSD’s)? - sleep disorders that interfere with the typical regulation of the circadian rhythm of sleep, leading to a change in the sleep-wake cycle

• What are the three CRSD’s? -  delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS), advanced sleep phase disorder (ASPD), and shift work.

• What is Delayed sleep phase syndrome (DSPS)? - a circadian rhythm sleep disorder characterised by a delay in the timing of sleep onset and awakening, compared with the timing that is desired. The delay is usually for two or more hours, with a person falling asleep later than what is required or conventionally accepted. This then causes a need to wake up later than required if a person is to achieve an adequate amount of sleep. For example, instead of a sleep schedule of 10:00 pm until 6:00 am, a person may sleep from 2:00 am until 10:00 am.

• What is Advanced sleep phase disorder (ASPD)? - a circadian rhythm sleep disorder characterised by an advance in the timing of sleep onset and awakening compared to the timing that is desired. A person may fall asleep usually two or more hours earlier than what is needed or acceptable, resulting in them then experiencing an earlier waking time than is desired. For example, instead of a sleep schedule of 10:00 pm until 6:00 am, a person may sleep from 8:00 pm to 4:00 am.

• What is shift work and how does it affect the circadian rhythm? - Shift work is an occupation that involves working at unusual hours, such as working overnight. Shift work can put a person’s sleep–wake schedule in direct opposition to the regular day–night environmental hours, resulting in distress and dysfunction due to excessive sleepiness at work and impaired sleep at home after their shift.

• What is a method used to help treat circadian rhythm sleep disorders? - Bright light therapy

• What is Bright light therapy? - a method used to adjust a person’s circadian rhythm through exposure to a high-intensity light source

• How can bright light therapy assist someone with DSPS? - An individual is exposed to the bright light source in the morning at an appropriate waking time. This will act as an external cue to the suprachiasmatic nucleus and promote wakefulness, by sending signals to release cortisol. This will help the suprachiasmatic nucleus send signals for melatonin release at an earlier, more appropriate sleeping time, thus promoting sleep. 

• How can bright light therapy assist someone with ASPD? - An individual is exposed to the bright light source in the evening when feeling sleepy, to act as an external cue to the suprachiasmatic nucleus and promote wakefulness. This will then help the suprachiasmatic nucleus send signals for melatonin release at a later, more appropriate sleeping time, thus promoting sleep. Additionally, this will encourage the suprachiasmatic nucleus to signal cortisol release later in the morning at a more appropriate time.

• How can bright light therapy assist someone with Shift work related sleep disorder? - The use of bright light therapy for shift work depends on the details and timing of an individual’s work. An individual is best to be exposed to the bright light source before beginning their shift work, in order to promote wakefulness when they need to be awake and alert. This will help promote sleepiness at a later, more suitable time (when they are not required to work), whether that be during the morning or afternoon.

7C - Improving sleep

• What is Sleep hygiene? - The practices and habits that promote an individual’s sleep patterns

• What does sleep hygiene involve? - • 

  • time; sleeping and waking at a time that enables an adequate amount of sleep, and sleeping and waking at a consistent time each day. 

  • sound; sleeping in a fairly quiet space. 

  • light; sleeping in a dark space and reducing bright light exposure close to sleeping time. 

  • comfort; sleeping in a comfortable space. 

  • technology/devices; avoiding bright screen use close to sleeping time. 

  • association with bed; avoiding doing activities other than sleeping in bed (like studying or watching TV). 

  • food and drink consumption; avoiding large meals, caffeine, and alcohol before sleeping time. 

  • exercise; engaging in exercise early in the day and avoiding exercise close to sleeping time.

• What are Zeitgebers? - Zeitgebers are external cues from the environment that influence the circadian rhythm. 

• What are the three main Zeitgebers? - Light(Daylight (Sun) and artificial bluelight), Temperature, and Eating and drinking patterns.

• How does light (Daylight and artificial bluelight) act as Zeitgebers? - Daylight, which is predominantly natural blue light, regulates the sleep-wake cycle by signalling to the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) to cease melatonin production and promote wakefulness. Thus, daylight acts as a zeitgeber. Artificial blue light, Similarly to daylight (natural blue light), can also act as a zeitgeber. Artificial blue light can also act as an external cue in the same way that daylight does, thus promoting wakefulness. In this way, exposure to natural or artificial blue light at night time can reduce sleepiness.

• How does temperature act as a Zeitgeber? - Temperature is the degree of external heat in the environment that can influence the quality and quantity of sleep. Research suggests there is a link between having a cool room temperature and experiencing improved quantity and quality of sleep. It is thought that this is because body temperature drops during sleep, thus, a cooler room temperature helps body temperature cool.

• How do Eating and drinking patterns act as a Zeitgeber and affect sleep? - The types of food and drink an individual consumes can influence the quality and quantity of sleep; some foods can negatively impact sleep and some can positively impact sleep. Some of the foods and drinks that can impact the quality and quantity of sleep include: caffeine, alcohol, spicy foods, high-sugar and high-fat foods. The amount of food we eat can also influence sleep quality and quantity. Specifically, going to sleep feeling hungry can lead to poorer sleep quality and quantity. Additionally, eating large meals close to sleep time and going to sleep overly full can impair sleep patterns.

• How does caffeine, alcohol, spicy foods, high-sugar and high-fat foods impact sleep? - Caffeine is a stimulant and thus increases the activity of the nervous system, promoting wakefulness. Additionally, caffeine also blocks sleep-promoting neurotransmitters .Alcohol is a depressant which can increase feelings of tiredness. Therefore, alcohol can make it easier to fall asleep; however, alcohol significantly impairs the quality of sleep. Studies suggest that consuming a diet high in fatty foods and sugary foods can negatively impact sleep quality and quantity. Spicy foods can increase body temperature which goes against the idea that cooler body temperatures promote sleep.

8A - Ways of Considering Mental Wellbeing

• What is Wellbeing? -  a state in which an individual is mentally, physically, and socially healthy and secure

• What is Mental Wellbeing? -  an individual’s psychological state, including their ability to think, process information, and regulate emotions.

• What are the three ways of considering Wellbeing? - Levels of functioning, Resilience, Social and emotional wellbeing.

• What is Levels of functioning, and give examples of low levels of functioning and high levels of functioning? - Levels of functioning is the degree to which an individual can complete day-to-day tasks in an independent and effective manner. An example of low levels of functioning is; struggle to carry out basic tasks, such as maintaining personal hygiene and dressing appropriately. An example of high levels of functioning is; carry out basic everyday tasks, such as maintaining personal hygiene and dressing appropriately.

• What is Resilience, and give examples of low levels of resilience and high levels of resilience? - Resilience is the ability to cope with and manage change and uncertainty. An example of low levels of resilience is; experiencing enduring feelings of being overwhelmed when problems arise and being unable to adapt to change. An example of high levels of resilience is; seek solutions to problems, use appropriate coping strategies and be flexible in changing circumstances.

• What is Social and Emotional wellbeing? - Social wellbeing is the ability for an individual to form and maintain meaningful bonds with others, and adapt to different social situations. Emotional wellbeing is the ability for an individual to appropriately control and express their own emotions in an adaptive way, as well as understand the emotions of others.

• What are examples of low Social wellbeing and high Social wellbeing? - Some examples of low levels of social wellbeing are; being isolated or lacking support from others, having difficulty forming and maintaining meaningful relationships, and struggle to effectively communicate with others. Some examples of high levels of social wellbeing are; having a strong support network, being able to form and maintain meaningful relationships, and being able to effectively communicate with others.

• What are examples of low Emotional wellbeing and high Emotional wellbeing? - Some examples of low levels of Emotional wellbeing are; being unable to understand or name their own and others’ emotions, feeling numb or being unable to experience certain emotions, expressing emotions inappropriately or at inappropriate times (for example, yelling at your boss while at work). Some examples of high levels of Emotional wellbeing are; being aware of one's own and others’ current emotional state, experiencing a wide range of emotions and expressing emotions at appropriate times.

• What is the Social and Emotional wellbeing (SEWB) Framework? - a multidimensional/Holistic framework that includes all elements of being, and therefore wellbeing, for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander people's. 

• What are the 7 elements of the SEWB framework? - Connection to body, Connection to mind & emotions, Connection to family & kinship, Connection to community, Connection to culture, Connection to country, and Connection to spirit, spirituality & ancestors

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Body, Mind or emotions, Family or kinship, Community, culture, country, spirit or ancestors

• What are the three determinants of well-being for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders? - Social, Historical, Political.

8B - Mental wellbeing as a continuum

• What is The mental wellbeing continuum? - a tool used to track fluctuating mental wellbeing.

• What are the characteristics of someone with high, Medium and low levels of Mental wellbeing? - 

• High: 

• able to function independently within their everyday life  

• able to cope with everyday demands without showing an excessive level of distress and dysfunction 

• still may experience stress, sadness, and anger, however, have high levels of mental wellbeing due to their ability to cope with these experiences, regulate emotions, and express them appropriately.

• Medium

• is not functioning at an optimal level 

• experiences a temporary or moderate impact on mental wellbeing 

• experiences amplified emotions and high levels of stress 

• has difficulty concentrating 

• is more likely to experience irrational thought patterns.

• Low

• shows high levels of distress 

• is unable to independently complete tasks and meet the demands of their environment 

• is impacted for an extended period of time (more than two weeks or in line with advice from mental health professionals) 

• may be diagnosed by a mental health professional and may be treated through psychotherapy or medication.

• What are the two factors that influence Mental wellbeing? - Internal factors and External factors

• Explain internal factors and external factors that influence Mental wellbeing? - Internal factors are factors that arise from within the individual (Genetics, Emotions, etc). External factors are factors that arise from an individual’s environment (Early life experience, social support, etc).

• What is Stress? - a psychological and physiological experience that occurs when an individual encounters something of significance that demands their attention and/or efforts to cope.

• What is Anxiety? - a psychological and physiological response that involves feelings of worry and apprehension about a perceived threat. 

• What is Specific Phobia? - a type of diagnosable anxiety disorder that is categorised by excessive and disproportionate fear when encountering or anticipating the encounter of a particular stimulus

9A - Specific Phobia and its contributing factors

• What are the 4 categories phobias can be placed into? - The natural environment (water, storms), Animals (snakes, spiders, dogs), Potential bodily pain or injury (needles, dental and medical procedures, sight of blood), and Situations (heights, confined or open spaces, aeroplanes, tunnels)

• In relation to Phobia, What is the Biopsychosocial approach? - a holistic, interdisciplinary framework for understanding the human experience in terms of the influence of biological, psychological, and social factors.

• What is GABA (Gamma-amino butyric acid)? - The main inhibitory neurotransmitter in the nervous system

• In relation to Phobia and the Biopsychosocial approach, What are the 2 Biological CONTRIBUTING factors? - Dysfunctional GABA system and Long-term potentiation (LTP)

• What is GABA Dysfunction? - insufficient neural transmission or reception of GABA in the body

• What is Long-term potentiation (LTP)? - the long-lasting and experience-dependent strengthening of synaptic connections that are regularly coactivated. 

• In relation to Phobia and the Biopsychosocial approach, What are the 5 Psychological CONTRIBUTING factors? - Classical conditioning, Operant conditioning, Cognitive bias, Memory bias, and Catastrophic thinking.

• In relation to phobia, what are Precipitating factors? - factors that increase the susceptibility to and contribute to the occurrence of developing a specific phobia

• How does Classical Conditioning precipitate phobias? - what becomes a phobic stimulus would initially be the neutral stimulus (NS). Through repeated association with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) that naturally induces fear, the NS becomes the conditioned stimulus (CS) or phobic stimulus, producing the conditioned response (CR) or phobic response. Consequently, classical conditioning is one way in which a phobic response can be acquired.

• In relation to phobia, what are Perpetuating factors? - factors that inhibit a person’s ability to recover from a specific phobia

• How does Operant Conditioning perpetuate phobias? - an individual with a phobia will generally avoid contact with their phobic stimulus at all costs. by avoiding confrontation with the phobic stimulus, a person is negatively reinforced through this avoidance in not having to deal with their fear response. This reinforcement strengthens or maintains the phobic response, making avoidance behaviours more likely to be repeated and preventing recovery through this cycle.

• In relation to Phobia, What is Cognitive bias? - The tendency to think in a way that involves errors of judgement and faulty decision-making. They often lead to an inaccurate judgement or illogical interpretation of a situation.

• In relation to Phobia, What is Memory bias? - Memory bias, a type of cognitive bias, refers to knowledge, beliefs and feelings distorting our memory of experiences causing People with a phobia to recall negative information more easily than positive information.

• What is Catastrophic thinking? - Catastrophic thinking occurs when an individual repeatedly overestimates the potential dangers of an object or event and assumes the worst. When this occurs, people experience heightened feelings of helplessness and underestimate their ability to cope with the situation.

• In relation to Phobia and the Biopsychosocial approach, What are the 2 Social CONTRIBUTING factors? - Specific environmental trigger and Stigma

• In relation to Phobia, What is Specific environment triggers? - stimuli or experiences in a person’s environment that evoke an extreme stress response, leading to the development of a phobia

• In relation to Phobia, What is Stigma? - A Stigma is a negative stereotype associated with a trait that sets a person apart, such as ethnicity or a mental health disorder. This can lead to feelings of shame or hopelessness and result in them hiding their symptoms. This would prevent them from seeking help for their condition.

9B - Evidence-based intervention for specific Phobias

• In relation to Phobia and the Biopsychosocial approach, What are the 2 Biological INTERVENTIONS? - Short-acting GABA agonist and Breathing retraining

• What is an Agonist and give me an example of one? - a type of drug that imitates neurotransmitters and works to initiate a neural response (excitatory or inhibitory) when it binds to the receptor sites of a neuron mimicking the effects of GABA. Benzodiazepines are agonist drugs that work on the CNS (e.g. Valium, Xanax).

• What is Breathing retraining? - a method used to teach breathing control techniques that may reduce physiological arousal, 

• In relation to Phobia and the Biopsychosocial approach, What are the 2 Psychological INTERVENTIONS? - Cognitive behavioural therapy(CBT) and Systematic desensitisation

• What is Cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)? - a form of psychotherapy that encourages individuals to substitute dysfunctional cognitions and behaviours with more adaptive ones 

• What is Systematic desensitisation? - a therapeutic technique used to overcome phobias that involves a patient being exposed incrementally to increasingly anxiety inducing stimuli, combined with the use of relaxation techniques.

• In relation to Phobia and the Biopsychosocial approach, What is the 1 Social INTERVENTION? - Psychoeducation.

• What is Psychoeducation? - teaching families and supporters of individuals with mental health disorders how to better understand, deal with, and treat their disorder. 

10A - Biopsychosocial approach: Protective factors for mental wellbeing

• What are Protective factors? - influences that enable an individual to promote and maintain high levels of mental wellbeing

• What are Risk factors? - influences that can increase the chances of an individual experiencing low levels of mental wellbeing

• In relation to the Biopsychosocial approach for Mental Wellbeing, What are the 2 Biological PROTECTIVE Factors? - Adequate nutrition and hydration, and Sleep

• How does having Adequate Nutrition, hydration and sleep Increase mental wellbeing? - Having adequate nutrition, hydration and sleep can act as a protective factor for mental wellbeing. By prioritising the consumption of unprocessed foods, adequate nutritional intake, and sufficient water intake, the risk of mental health disorders can be reduced, thus promoting higher levels of mental wellbeing.

• In relation to the Biopsychosocial approach for Mental Wellbeing, What are the 2 Psychological PROTECTIVE Factors? - Mindfulness meditation and Cognitive behavioural strategies

• In relation to the Psychological protective Factors, What is Mindfulness Meditation? - Mindfulness meditation is the practice of observing the present moment, suspending judgements and focusing on something calm and peaceful. Mindfulness takes practice and brings awareness to the experience of our senses or our state of mind. It reduces rumination, reduces stress, boosts working memory, allows greater focus, results in more cognitive flexibility and results in less emotional reactivity.

• In relation to the Psychological protective Factors, What is Cognitive Behavioural strategies? - Cognitive behavioural strategies are techniques that utilise traits of cognitive behavioural therapy, particularly recognising and changing dysfunctional thought and behavioural patterns. Cognitive behavioural therapy involves a cognitive and a behavioural component. 

  • The cognitive component involves: 

• identifying dysfunctional feelings and thoughts (cognitions) about the issue. 

• replacing these dysfunctional feelings and thoughts with more functional ones. 

• The behavioural component involves: 

• identifying dysfunctional behaviours relating to the issue. 

• developing and maintaining more functional behaviours relating to the issue.

• In relation to the Biopsychosocial approach for Mental Wellbeing, What is the 1 Social PROTECTIVE Factor? - Support/Supportive Networks

• In relation to the social protective factors, what is Support/Supportive networks? -  genuine and effective assistance provided by family, friends, and community 

10B - Cultural determinants of wellbeing for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples

• What is Culture? -  a strong sense of identity, values, tradition, and connection between the past, present and future that drives behaviour and beliefs

• What are Determinants of wellbeing? - factors that influence wellbeing on individual and community levels, there are two important cultural determinants of wellbeing, including:

  • cultural continuity

  • self-determination.
    

• What is Cultural Continuity? - the passing down and active practice of cultural knowledge, traditions, and values from generation to generation

• What is Self-Determination? - the rights of all peoples to pursue freely their economic, social, and cultural development without outside interference