GOVT 2305 – Intro to American Government Midterm Two Review Sheet

1. Political Culture and Public Opinion

• Political Culture

  • Defined as the shared set of beliefs, values, and norms about politics and government.

  • Significance: Political culture influences citizens’ views of government legitimacy and shapes expectations for government actions. Understanding this helps explain why Americans prioritize values like freedom, equality, and democracy.

  • Alexis de Tocqueville

    • French political thinker who wrote Democracy in America, examining the unique American political culture that emphasized liberty, individualism, and civic participation.

    • Significance: Tocqueville’s observations highlight early American values that continue to define U.S. politics, like mistrust of centralized power and a strong emphasis on community and voluntary associations.

• Robert Putnam’s “Bowling Alone” and Social Capital

  • Putnam argued that social capital (the networks of trust and social connections among people) is critical for a thriving democracy but is declining in modern America.

  • Significance: Lower levels of social capital reduce civic engagement and weaken democratic processes, as fewer people participate in social groups or take part in public life.

2. Political Socialization

• Definition and Process

  • Political socialization is the process by which individuals acquire beliefs, values, and attitudes about politics, forming opinions that influence actions.

  • Formula: Basic beliefs + information = opinion → action.

  • Significance: This gradual process helps create stability in the political system by instilling common values across generations.

• Agents of Political Socialization

  • Family - Traditionally the primary influence, shaping early beliefs indirectly.

  • Media - Increasingly significant, often shaping views by providing information and framing issues.

  • School - Educates on civic duties and patriotism, helping instill respect for the political system.

  • Peers - Social circles influence political perspectives, especially during adolescence.

  • Institutions - Religious, corporate, and government institutions provide frameworks for beliefs.

  • Dramatic Experiences - Events like wars or economic crises can shift beliefs significantly.

  • Direct vs. Indirect Socialization - Indirect methods (e.g., modeling behaviors) are often more impactful than direct persuasion.

  • Significance: Different agents contribute to political attitudes that shape voting behavior, policy preferences, and general trust in government.

3. Linkage Institutions

• Political Parties

  • Role in Organizing

    • Parties help structure public opinion by providing platforms and organizing political ideas in a republic.

    • Significance: Political parties are essential for organizing voters, running elections, and providing a stable democratic process, despite fears of “factions.”

  • Partisanship - Defined as loyalty to a political party, often influencing voting behavior and policy views. Broader than specific issues, ideology guides overall political values.

  • Significance: Partisanship reflects how individuals align with political parties, often leading to polarized views but also creating cohesion within parties.

  • Three Ways to Conceive of Parties

    • Parties in Government: Organize governance and often align congressional actions along party lines.

      • Significance: Party alignment helps solve collective action problems in government, but current splits in Congress can lead to gridlock.

    • Parties as Organizations: Operate as expansive, decentralized entities, without stringent membership requirements.

      • Significance: This allows for broad participation but also weakens party discipline, impacting party cohesion.

    • Parties in the Electorate: Reflect the party’s meaning to individual voters.

      • Significance: Parties help voters navigate political choices, though modern times show a growing disconnect as parties struggle to represent diverse voter needs.

• Political Party Systems Around the World

  • Single-Member District (SMD) vs. Proportional Representation

    • SMD systems (like in the U.S.) lead to two-party dominance due to Duverger’s Law, while proportional representation systems support multi-party diversity.

    • Significance: SMD promotes stability but limits representation, often discouraging third parties and new ideas from gaining influence.

  • Representation vs. Stability - Proportional systems offer greater representation, while SMD systems provide government stability.

    • Significance: Balancing representation with stable governance is crucial, as too many parties can fragment governance, while too few can ignore diverse perspectives.

• Interest Groups (IGs)

  • Roles and Definitions

    • Interest groups seek to influence policies and represent specific issues, differing from parties, which aim to win elections.

    • Types - Economic, single-issue, public interest, and government-related groups each focus on unique interests.

    • Pluralism - The belief that a multitude of groups competing for influence ensures that diverse interests are represented.

    • Significance: Interest groups play a critical role in the political process by bringing attention to specific issues and advocating for policies. They reflect pluralism in action but also present risks like undue influence and lobbying abuses.

  • Collective Action Problems

    • Issues arise in mobilizing members, particularly with “free riders” who benefit without contributing.

    • Public Goods: IGs often fight for public goods that benefit many but require organized support.

    • Significance: Overcoming collective action problems is essential for IGs to influence policy effectively.

  • Iron Triangle

    • A close relationship between congressional committees, bureaucracies, and interest groups, often seen in areas like defense or agriculture.

    • Significance: Iron triangles highlight how policy can be influenced by concentrated interests, sometimes at odds with public interest.

4. Our Founding

• The Declaration of Independence

  • Laid out principles of natural rights and justified independence from Britain.

  • Significance: Established the idea of government based on consent of the governed, a cornerstone of American democracy.

• The Articles of Confederation

  • Created a weak central government, resulting in issues like ineffective tax collection and weak national defense.

  • Significance: Its failures led to the Constitutional Convention, shaping a new constitution with a stronger central government.

• Federalist Papers (Federalist 10 and 51)

  • Federalist 10: Addressed the dangers of factions and the benefits of a large republic.

  • Federalist 51: Emphasized “checks and balances” to prevent tyranny.

  • Significance: These papers remain key to understanding the framers' intent to create a balanced, resilient system of government.

• Elastic Clause and Judicial Review (Marbury v. Madison)

  • Elastic Clause allows Congress to pass laws “necessary and proper” for executing its powers.

  • Marbury v. Madison: Established judicial review, giving the Supreme Court the power to declare laws unconstitutional.

  • Significance: Both are crucial for adapting the Constitution to changing times and maintaining the judiciary’s role as a check on the other branches.

5. Civil Liberties

• The Bill of Rights

  • First ten amendments protect individual freedoms, including speech, religion, and assembly.

  • Significance: Limits government power and ensures basic protections, essential for democratic participation.

  • The First Amendment Freedoms - Speech, religion, press, assembly, and petition are fundamental but not absolute (e.g., restrictions on obscenity and incitement).

    • Miller Test: Established a standard for determining obscene material, not protected by the First Amendment.

    • Lemon Test: A guideline for determining the constitutionality of religious involvement in government.

    • Accommodationists vs. Separationists - Debate whether government should support or separate itself from religion.

    • Significance: Balances the freedoms with public interest, reflecting ongoing debates over First Amendment rights.

  • Privacy Rights and Key Cases

    • Roe v. Wade: Landmark case establishing a right to privacy in reproductive choices.

    • The PATRIOT Act: Expanded government surveillance, raising questions about privacy in national security.

    • Significance: Privacy rights represent a dynamic area where law adapts to new technologies and social changes.