AP Comparative Government & Politics - China Flashcards

China: Introduction

• In 1989, it was widely believed that the collapse of communism in the Soviet Union would be mirrored in China.
• However, the Chinese regime suppressed democratic dissent and implemented gradual economic reforms.
• This resulted in modern China: a one-party dominant authoritarian state under the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) with relative economic freedom for the urban middle class.
• China is now considered a rising superpower with the world’s second-largest GDP and an increasingly assertive military.
• Paradoxes within China include: political repression alongside economic freedom, superpower statistics amidst widespread poverty, and an aggressive military posture combined with global cooperation.

Sovereignty, Authority, and Power

Geographic Influences on Political Culture

• China has the largest population in the world (over 1.3 billion).
• Historically, geographic features like mountains, deserts, and the ocean provided protection and isolation.
• The majority of the population resides in the east, particularly near the coast.
• Navigable rivers facilitated the mixing of people and culture within China.
• This led to the dominance of the Han ethnicity, which comprises over 90% of the population.
• Cultural differences persist between the north and south due to climate and terrain variations.
• Western regions are inhabited by non-Han ethnicities who remain largely isolated and unintegrated.

Components of Chinese Political Culture

• Confucianism:
  • Rooted in dynastic history.
  • Emphasizes social hierarchy and suppressing individual ambition.
  • Aims to achieve social harmony for the collective group.
  • Developed merit-based bureaucracy long before European kingdoms.
  • Scholarship-based social promotion remains central to Chinese politics.
• Ethnocentrism:
  • Ancient dynasties viewed China as “The Middle Kingdom,” the center of civilization.
  • Chinese cultural superiority is sometimes expressed in the context of China’s rise to superpower status.
  • Minority ethnicities (e.g., Tibetans, Uighurs) often resent Chinese rule and Han superiority.
• Isolationism:
  • European imperialism in the late 19th century led to foreign influence in China.
  • Nationalists rebelled in 1911 to expel foreign powers.
  • Historical isolation and imperialism have made Chinese people suspicious of international actors, especially from the West.
• Maoism:
  • Mao Zedong's leadership in the Communist Revolution left a lasting impact.
  • His charisma and ideals shaped Chinese politics.
• Deng Xiaoping:
  • Succeeded Mao and shifted away from leftist ideology.
  • Embraced a globalized market economy for development.
  • The CCP engineered this reform despite the ideological contradiction.
  • Today's CCP leadership is known for pragmatism.
• Patron-Clientelism:
  • Informal relationships (guanxi, or “connection”) are crucial in Chinese politics.
  • Political actors achieve goals based on personal connections to those in power.

Ancient Dynastic Rule

• Chinese politics operated similarly to European feudalism during the dynastic age (approximately 2800 b.c.e.–1911).
• A ruling family with a large army claimed the mandate of heaven (ancestral guidance).
• Positive outcomes were seen as assurance of the mandate, with power passing through heredity.
• Droughts, famines, or military failures indicated a loss of the mandate, leading to challenges from other powerful families.

The Republic of China (1911–1949)

• The Qing Dynasty (1644–1911) was overthrown in 1911 due to its inability to modernize and resist foreign influence.
• Losses in the Opium Wars and the First Sino-Japanese War led to uprisings.
• The 1911 Revolution established a republic led by Sun Yat Sen.
• The early republic divided into two rival movements: the Kuomintang (KMT) led by Chiang Kai-Shek, and the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) led by Mao Zedong.

The Republic of China (1911–1949)

• Chiang Kai-Shek became president in 1928 but ended the good relationship with the CCP.
• Chiang outlawed the CCP and launched a military campaign to eliminate them.

The Revolution of 1949

• Mao’s forces retreated, spreading Maoist communism to the peasantry through propaganda.
• The Long March (1934–1936) built support for the CCP among peasants.
• A truce was formed to fight Japan after the 1937 invasion of Manchuria.
• Mao emerged as a national hero by the time of Japan’s surrender in 1945.

The Revolution of 1949

• Fighting resumed between the KMT and CCP, with Mao’s forces victorious.
• Chiang Kai-Shek and supporters fled to Taiwan.
• Mao declared the People’s Republic of China in 1949.
• Chiang and the international community maintained that the KMT in Taiwan were the legitimate rulers of China.
• This resulted in effectively “two Chinas” for much of the 20th century.
• China still views Taiwan as part of a unified China.

Building the People’s Republic of China (1949–1966)

• Centralism and Mass Line:
  • Modeled after Lenin’s vision, the state was run by a revolutionary elite.
  • The mass line connected leadership to the people, emphasizing listening to the masses.
  • The mass line is summarized as: "To the masses - from the masses - to the masses."
• Struggle and Activism:
  • Development was to come from the collective action and enthusiasm of the masses.
  • Everyone was expected to contribute.
• Collectivism:
  • Maoist thought valued community over the individual.
  • People were expected to sacrifice personal interests for society’s well-being.
• Egalitarianism:
  • Maoism rejected old hierarchies and sought to abolish class distinctions.

Building the People’s Republic of China (1949–1966)

• Urban elites could learn from peasants.
• Economic development initially followed a Soviet model with land reform through collectivization and redistribution.
• Civil reforms ended class distinctions and granted women legal rights (e.g., the right to divorce).
• Five-Year Plans focused on ambitious agricultural goals rather than industrialization.

Building the People’s Republic of China (1949–1966)

• In 1956-1957, Mao launched the Hundred Flowers Campaign, encouraging open discussion about the country’s problems.
• The slogan was: “Let a hundred flowers bloom, and a hundred schools of thought contend.”
• Mao believed this would lead to support for his vision, but he cracked down on dissenting voices, claiming he had “enticed the snakes out of their caves.”

Building the People’s Republic of China (1949–1966)

• In 1957-1958, Mao broke from the Soviet Union and launched the Great Leap Forward.
• The Great Leap Forward aimed to rapidly transition China to a utopian socialist economy through collectivization and industrialization.
• The state forced the collectivization of all agriculture.
• People were forced to stay at “struggle session” meetings until they “volunteered” to give up their property and join a collective.

Building the People’s Republic of China (1949–1966)

• Traditional religious practices were prohibited and replaced with ideological lectures that attempted to inspire activism against social “evils.”
• This included opium addiction, “counter-revolutionaries,” and campaigns like the Four Pests Campaign (rats, sparrows, flies, mosquitoes).
• The Great Leap Forward and its cultural campaigns were a disaster.

Building the People’s Republic of China (1949–1966)

• Agricultural workers relocated to cities lacked training for factory work, and factories lacked industrial machinery.
• The loss of workers and CCP-mandated agricultural practices caused the Great Chinese Famine.
• It is estimated that 20 to 45 million Chinese died prematurely.

The Cultural Revolution (1966–1976)

• The disastrous Great Leap Forward led to internal Party inquiry.
• Mao was criticized and marginalized.
• Moderate Politburo members Liu Shaoqi and Deng Xiaoping implemented market-oriented policies.
• Mao believed China was abandoning his egalitarian vision and launched the Cultural Revolution.
• The Cultural Revolution aimed to purge "bourgeois" elements from Chinese society and the CCP.

The Cultural Revolution (1966–1976)

• Mao’s image was built into a personality cult.
• Bureaucrats with technical expertise were replaced with cadres who demonstrated devotion to Mao.
• Scholars were sent to fields to “learn from the wisdom of the peasants.”
• The Cultural Revolution had poor effects on the Chinese economy.
• By Mao’s death in 1976, the CCP was divided into three factions:

The Cultural Revolution (1966–1976)

• Radicals:
  • Loyal Maoists who supported the Cultural Revolution’s goals and methods.
  • Included Mao’s wife, Jiang Qing, and the "Gang of Four."
• Moderates:
  • Recognized failures of the Cultural Revolution.
  • Sought pragmatic policies to modernize the economy for growth, even with inequality.
  • Supported opening China to foreign investment.
  • Led by Zhou Enlai and included Deng Xiaoping.
• Military:
  • Military leaders had influence due to the need for a large army to enforce compliance.
  • Led by Lin Biao, whom Mao had once identified as his successor.
  • Lin died in a mysterious plane crash in 1971 amid rumors of a coup plot.

Deng Xiaoping Theory and the “Four Modernizations” (1979–1997)

• By 1978, Deng Xiaoping assumed leadership of the CCP.
• Deng’s economic program prioritized pragmatism and effectiveness over ideology.
• Ideological purges ended, and people were placed in positions based on expertise.
• The Four Modernizations aimed to modernize China in agriculture, industry, national defense, and science & technology.

Deng Xiaoping Theory and the “Four Modernizations” (1979–1997)

• Restoring Agricultural Markets:
  • Allowed peasants to decide whether to farm collectively or individually through town-village enterprises (TVEs).
  • Peasants could keep profits from their sales, though they did not gain private ownership.
• Industry Reforms:
  • Factories set prices and production based on market supply and demand.
  • Party leaders lost control over pricing and production decisions.

Deng Xiaoping Theory and the “Four Modernizations” (1979–1997)

• Opening of China:
  • Gradually opened China to the global economy.
  • Invited foreign investment by creating Special Economic Zones (SEZs) with no tariffs.
  • Allowed multinational corporations to do business in China.
• Re-emphasizing Education:
  • Reopened universities and recruited college graduates into Party leadership.
  • College graduates rose from 25% of Party membership in 1974 to 50% in 1984.

Deng Xiaoping Theory and the “Four Modernizations” (1979–1997)

• Small Enterprises:
  • Allowed entrepreneurs to start small businesses and source capital from foreign investors.
  • These enterprises employed millions of Chinese.

Deng Xiaoping Theory and the “Four Modernizations” (1979–1997)

• Deng’s reforms led to rapid economic growth in China and reduced poverty.
• GDP per capita rose from under 300 in 1979 to over 2,100 in 1997.
• This created new challenges, including rising inequality between the urban middle class and the rural countryside.

Tiananmen Square

• Reform did not occur on the democratic front.
• In 1978, the Democracy Wall Movement emerged in Beijing, advocating for modernization with democracy.
• In April 1989, students occupied Tiananmen Square, demanding civil liberties and democratic reform.
• They were joined by civil society actors with demands for democratic reform.

Tiananmen Square

• The Party eventually cracked down with a military assault on Tiananmen Square and similar protests nationwide.
• Estimates of the number killed range from 300 (government figure) to over 1,000 (Amnesty International and Chinese Red Cross).

Stabilization of the Party (1997–present)

• Before 2003, power transitions in communist parties led to instability.
• Since Deng’s death in 1997, moderates have dominated the CCP, and the Party has organized the transfer of power.
• The transfer from Jiang Zemin to Hu Jintao (2003-2005) and from Hu Jintao to Xi Jinping (2013) were smooth and structured.

Stabilization of the Party (1997–present)

• With stable politics and economic growth, the Party has legitimacy.
• The Party has implemented limited democratic reforms and relaxed restrictions on dissent, but remains an authoritarian one-party state.

Significant Social Cleavages

ETHNICITY

• The majority of China’s population (over 90%) is Han Chinese.
• China recognizes fifty-six minority ethnic groups.
• These minorities make up 8% of the population but inhabit large, isolated territories in the west and have regional autonomy.
• They are given rights to use local languages and exemptions to the one-child policy.
• Ethnic minorities are not integrated into the modern economic and political structure and top CCP leaders are exclusively Han.

ETHNICITY

• In 2008, all governors of minority autonomous regions were of minority ethnicity.
• However, their power is limited compared to Han Party secretaries who oversee them.
• The typical approach is to encourage economic development while suppressing dissent.
• China is concerned about separatist movements among Tibetans in Tibet and Uighurs in Xinjiang.

URBAN VS. RURAL

• Economic reforms have reduced poverty and led to urban development, with a new middle class of over 700 million.
• Rural China still lives as agrarian peasants, often without access to basic amenities.
• Urban residents are wary of the influx of poor laborers moving into their neighborhoods.

URBAN VS. RURAL

• This has widened income inequality with the more rural, agricultural regions of western China.
• This cleavage is only exacerbated by the hukou system of birthplace registration.
• Rural residents cannot easily move to urban areas.
• An urban hukou is needed to access education and health services.
• Many rural migrants leave their children in the countryside with grandparents while they work in urban areas.

Legitimacy

• Mao Zedong had charismatic legitimacy as the leader of the Chinese Revolution in 1949.
• This was cultivated into a cult of personality.
• China transitioned to rational-legal legitimacy through a party constitution and a state constitution.
• The current state constitution (1982) establishes a “socialist state under the people’s democratic dictatorship” based on democratic centralism.
• The National People’s Congress (NPC) is the formal source of authority.
• Xi Jinping is strengthening his position with traditional legitimacy by reviving respect for Confucius.

Regime

• China is an authoritarian one-party state.
• True power is held by the general secretary and the standing committee of the Politburo of the CCP.
• Economic liberalization has been allowed since the 1980s but political liberalization has been resisted.
• There is no independent court system, civil society is restricted, and there is a high degree of censorship.
• Freedom House: Not Free (political rights: 7, civil liberties: 6)
• Economist Intelligence Unit Democracy Index: authoritarian regime: 3.14

CIVIL SOCIETY

• During Mao’s rule, the CCP tried to control all aspects of life.
• Even in the early 2000s, Falun Gong was harshly persecuted.
• Modern technology makes it difficult for the Party to control access to information.

PROTESTS

• Protests are common in China.
• The number of “mass group incidents” has risen dramatically.
• Most demonstrations target local corruption, environmental damage, or other issues.
• They are not usually an existential threat to the CCP.

Linkage Institutions

THE CHINESE COMMUNIST PARTY

• The CCP is the central component of the Chinese political system.
• The Party claims the right to rule based on its history of governing in the best interests of the Chinese population.
• The CCP is the only party allowed to contend for and win national office.

THE CHINESE COMMUNIST PARTY

• The CCP is organized based on a geographic hierarchy.
• Each level of Party leadership is governed by a Party Congress.
• People’s Congresses usually approve decisions made by central leaders.
• The Party Congress at each level chooses the members of the central committee, who choose the Politburo, who choose the Politburo Standing Committee.

THE CHINESE COMMUNIST PARTY

• Promotion happens through nomenklatura, where higher-level members designate lower-level members.
• Power is concentrated in the standing committee, which chooses the general secretary.
• The general secretary also serves as president and chairman of the Central Military Commission.

ELECTIONS

• China has held elections at the local level since the 1980s to enhance the legitimacy of the Constitution and Deng’s reforms.
• The CCP reviews all candidates to remove objectionable candidates.
• Anyone over eighteen may vote for local representatives in Local People’s Congresses (LPCs).
• LPCs choose representatives for the County People’s Congress, who choose the Provincial People’s Congress, who choose the National People’s Congress.
• This is a system of indirect representation with candidate lists managed by the ruling party.

OTHER “POLITICAL PARTIES”

• The CCP dominates China as a one-party state.
• Eight other “democratic” parties exist, provided they recognize the “leading role” of the CCP.
• These parties have a combined membership of about 500,000 people and do not compete for national office.
• They serve in an advisory role, making them more like a corporatist interest group.

Levels of Government

• China is a unitary government with power vested in the National People’s Congress.
• Governance occurs at the national, provincial, city, town, and village levels.
• A party committee exists alongside the government unit to direct policymaking.
• There are five autonomous regions with a high population of a minority group with rights to retain its language, religion, and culture, along with the ability to make some policies.
• The five are Xinjiang (Uighur), Tibet (Tibetan), Inner Mongolia (Mongol), Ningxia (Hui) and Guangxi (Zhuang).

Levels of Government

• There are also two special administrative regions (SARs) in China: Hong Kong and Macau.
• Hong Kong was a British colony until 1997, and Macau was a Portuguese colony until 1987.
• These former colonies had well-developed market-based economies and legal systems.
• The policy “one country, two systems” allowed Hong Kong and Macau to operate outside the Chinese socialist system and both are separate members of the WTO.
• Recent attempts by the Chinese government to exert more political control over Hong Kong have met with protests.

INTEREST GROUPS

• Interest groups are not permitted to influence the state freely unless they submit to the authority of the CCP.
• China’s interest group system can be described as state corporatism.
• Corporatism and interest group monopolies may increasingly conflict with independent civil society, requiring reforms toward pluralism or restricting civil society.

THE MEDIA

• From the founding of the People’s Republic until 1980, all media was state-owned and propagated a CCP-approved message.
• Since the economic reforms of Deng Xiaoping, a variety of independent media outlets emerged.
• However, state media outlets still hold large market share.
• There remains intense political censorship over topics considered taboo by the Chinese government.

State Institutions

• In 1982, a constitution defined the institutions of the state and processes to select officials.
• A party constitution detailed how party leadership would be determined.
• The two are linked, as the party constitution chooses who wields power under the state constitution in a parallel structure.
• Members in the Communist Party structure serve simultaneously in either military or state institutions at parallel levels.

THE NATIONAL PEOPLE’S CONGRESS

• The National People’s Congress (NPC) has almost 3,000 members, chosen from the provincial people’s congresses, who were chosen from county people’s congresses.
• These delegates meet once a year for about a week.
• Theoretically, they are the top of the "power chain," empowered to choose the president and other senior leadership, and enact reforms initiated by the Politburo.
• Practically, they are essentially rubber-stamping decisions made by senior Party leadership at the Party Congress held the previous year.

THE PRESIDENT

• The president of the People’s Republic of China is the ceremonial head of state.
• They are constitutionally chosen by the National People’s Congress, but practically chosen by outgoing senior leaders of the CCP Politburo standing committee.
• The president serves a five-year term, which may be renewed.
• The two-term limitation was abolished in 2018.
• The current president is Xi Jinping, elected in 2013 and reelected in 2018.

THE PREMIER

• One power of the president is the appointment of the premier, the head of government.
• The appointment requires confirmation by the National People’s Congress.
• He serves a five-year term, which can be renewed for one additional term.
• The premier oversees the State Council, which is the gathering of thirty-five ministers and governors.
• The current premier is Li Keqiang.

THE BUREAUCRACY

• The Chinese bureaucracy is a hierarchical structure mirroring the geographical organization of the Communist Party.
• Most bureaucrats are Party members, but they do not have to be.
• Since Deng’s reforms, China has emphasized hiring qualified technocrats to manage bureaucratic agencies.
• The goal of a CCP member would be to move up the list to attain more senior positions of power by showing ideological loyalty, performance-based merit, and personal connections (guanxi).

THE BUREAUCRACY

• Bureaucrats in China are known to treat their position of authority as a personal fiefdom for bribe-taking and corrupt deals with local businesses.
• China ranked 77 out of 180 countries on Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index in 2017.

THE PEOPLE’S LIBERATION ARMY (PLA)

• The People’s Liberation Army has long been a central source of the power of the CCP.
• The PLA is commanded by the Central Military Commission, chaired by the general secretary and president (Xi Jinping).
• It also includes top generals who serve concurrently in the Politburo of the CCP.
• Military service is mandatory; however, there are consistently enough volunteers.

THE JUDICIARY

• China’s judiciary is organized into four levels of jurisdiction.
• The highest court is the Supreme People’s Court in Beijing, which acts as the court of last resort for all appeals except for Hong Kong and Macau.
• Local people’s courts make up the remaining three levels, at the provincial, county, and village/township levels.
• They act as the original jurisdiction courts or as an appellate court, depending on the case.
• Part of Deng Xiaoping’s “reform and opening up” system required judicial reform to attract foreign direct investment and entrepreneurs.

THE JUDICIARY

• Courts of Special Jurisdiction take cases in specified areas.
• Hong Kong and Macau have their own separate court structures.
• More than 99 percent of criminal charges in China result in a conviction or guilty plea.
• Rule of law is regularly abused by authorities in the criminal system.
• Judges will sometimes issue sentences longer than the law dictates is maximally allowable.