AP Psych: Human development and Motivation

Motivation: A need or desire that energizes behavior.

Types of Motivation & Self-Determination Theory

• Intrinsic Motivation ("I did it because I wanted to!")

• Extrinsic Motivation ("I wanted the diploma!").

  According to Self-Determination Theory, people need three fundamental elements for motivation:

• Competence (mastery and control over life and environment),

• Autonomy (control over behaviors and goals), and

• Relatedness (a sense of belonging and connection with others).

Major Motivational Theories

• Instinct Theory suggests behavior is innate and evolved for survival, such as the fight-or-flight response.

• Drive Reduction motivation arises from biological needs to maintain homeostasis, distinguishing between Primary Drives (e.g., hunger, thirst) and Secondary Drives (e.g., money to buy food).

• Incentive Theory explains that external stimuli ("pull factors") drive behavior, though it does not fully account for altruism or compassion.

• A related phenomenon, the Overjustification Effect, occurs when external rewards reduce intrinsic motivation.

• Arousal Theory (Yerkes-Dodson Law) suggests people seek an optimal level of arousal—low arousal leads to boredom and seeking stimulation, while high arousal results in overstimulation and a desire for calm.

• Humanistic Theory emphasizes personal growth and self-actualization, as described in Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.

Social & Achievement Motivation: People are driven by Affiliation Motivation, balancing connectedness with psychological needs.

Ostracism (social exclusion) can cause emotional pain.

Competence Motivation involves striving to master skills and control outcomes, while

Achievement Motivation focuses on excelling and outperforming others.

Motivational Conflicts & Sensation Seeking

• People experience Approach-Approach Conflicts (choosing between two positive outcomes),

• Avoidance-Avoidance Conflicts (choosing between two negative outcomes),

• Approach-Avoidance Conflicts (a single goal with both positive and negative aspects).

• Sensation Seeking, which includes thrill-seeking activities (e.g., skydiving).

• Experience-seeking (e.g., travel, art), disinhibition (social stimulation or risk-taking), and boredom susceptibility (difficulty tolerating routine experiences).

Growth Mindset: The belief that abilities can develop through effort, learning, and persistence. Fixed Mindset, where abilities are seen as static.

Growth mindset principles include embracing challenges, persistence through setbacks, valuing effort, learning from criticism, and celebrating others' success.

Physiology of Hunger & Hunger Hormones:

• Research shows hunger is not solely linked to the stomach;

• individuals without stomachs still feel hunger. T

• The hypothalamus regulates hunger, with the Lateral Hypothalamus acting as the "on switch" and the Ventromedial Hypothalamus serving as the "off switch."

• Damage to the latter can lead to excessive weight gain.

Key Hunger Hormones:

• Ghrelin & Orexin: Stimulate appetite and eating.

• Leptin: Signals satiety and regulates food intake.

• Glucose & Insulin: Regulate energy levels and hunger responses.

Hunger Regulation & External Influences:

Set Point Theory suggests that the body maintains a stable weight through food intake regulation and energy expenditure. However, external cues often disrupt this balance.

Obesity studies show that individuals with dopamine deficiencies may overeat to stimulate the brain’s reward system.