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Anatomy MSJC Final

Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Anatomy, Physiology, and Biology

  • Anatomy is the study of the structure of living things.

  • Physiology is the study of the function of those structures.

  • Biology is the broader study of living organisms, encompassing both anatomy and physiology1.

Levels of Organization in Organisms

  • Atoms → Molecules → Cells → Tissues → Organs → Organ Systems → Organism1.

Homeostasis

  • Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment. In humans, it’s maintained through feedback mechanisms (like body temperature regulation)1.

Three Domains of Life

  • Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya. Humans belong to Eukarya1.

Human Development

  • The process from fertilized egg to old age is called development or ontogeny1.

Evolution

  • Evolution is the unifying theory of biology, explaining the diversity of life through natural selection and genetic change over time1.

Scientific Method Steps

  • Observation, hypothesis, experiment, data collection, conclusion, and repeat1.

Graph Interpretation

  • The axes and labels provide the most information about a graph’s contents1.

Biochemistry and Cells

Important Ions

  • Calcium (Ca²⁺), Sodium (Na⁺), Potassium (K⁺), Chloride (Cl⁻) are crucial for muscle contractions and nerve impulses1.

Atoms vs. Molecules

  • Atoms are single elements; molecules are two or more atoms bonded together1.

Four Major Organic Macromolecules

  • Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids. Built by dehydration synthesis, broken down by hydrolysis. Each has unique functions and locations in the body1.

Cells vs. Viruses

  • Cells are living, can reproduce on their own; viruses are nonliving and need a host cell to reproduce1.

Plasma Membrane Structure

  • Composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins1.

Major Cell Structures

  • Nucleus (contains DNA), ribosomes (protein synthesis), cilia/flagella (movement), mitochondria (energy), Golgi apparatus (packaging), endoplasmic reticulum (protein/lipid synthesis)1.

DNA Location and Chromosomes

  • DNA is in the nucleus. Humans have 46 chromosomes: 44 autosomes, 2 sex chromosomes1.

Mitosis vs. Meiosis

  • Mitosis produces identical cells; meiosis produces gametes with half the chromosome number1.

Nondisjunction

  • In Meiosis I: all four cells abnormal. In Meiosis II: two abnormal, two normal1.

Karyotype

  • Arranged by size/shape; used to diagnose chromosomal abnormalities1.

Chromatin, Chromatid, Centromere

  • Chromatin: DNA/protein complex; chromatid: each half of a duplicated chromosome; centromere: region joining chromatids1.

Basic Genetics

DNA & RNA Structure

  • DNA: double helix; RNA: single strand. Monomers are nucleotides. Base pairing: A-T (DNA), A-U (RNA), C-G1.

Transcription & Translation

  • Transcription: DNA → RNA; Translation: RNA → protein. Proteins are made of 20 amino acids1.

Genotype vs. Phenotype

  • Genotype: genetic makeup (e.g., Aa); phenotype: physical trait (e.g., brown eyes)1.

Three Genotype Types

  • Homozygous dominant (AA), heterozygous (Aa), homozygous recessive (aa)1.

Monohybrid vs. Dihybrid Cross

  • Monohybrid: one trait; dihybrid: two traits1.

Inheritance of Traits

  • Dominant traits require one allele; recessive traits require two1.

Probability in Genetics

  • Two Aa parents: 75% dominant, 25% recessive offspring1.

Colorblindness Probability

  • Colorblind male (XbY) × carrier female (XbXB): 50% chance of colorblind son1.

Biotechnological Tools

  • PCR (amplifies DNA), gel electrophoresis (separates DNA), bioinformatics (analyzes DNA), bacterial transformation, CRISPR (gene editing), cloning1.

Histology and Organization

Tissue vs. Cell

  • Tissue: group of similar cells performing a function1.

Four Major Tissue Types

  • Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous—each with distinct structures and functions1.

Major Body Cavities

  • Cranial, thoracic, abdominal, pelvic; each contains specific organs1.

Skeletal System

Functions and Bones

  • Support, movement, protection, blood cell production. Axial skeleton: skull, vertebrae, ribs; appendicular: limbs, girdles1.

Skeletal Cells

  • Osteocytes (mature bone), chondrocytes (cartilage), osteoclasts (break down bone), osteoblasts (build bone)1.

Bone Fractures/Repair

  • Types: simple, compound, etc. Repair: hematoma, callus, bone remodeling1.

Ligaments vs. Tendons

  • Ligaments connect bones; tendons connect muscles to bones1.

Joint Movements

  • Flexion, extension, circumduction, rotation, adduction, abduction, pronation, supination1.

Coxal Bone Parts

  • Ilium, ischium, pubis1.

Strongest Bone

  • Femur1.

Pelvic Girdle Bones

  • Ilium, ischium, pubis1.

Nervous System and Senses

Nervous System Organization

  • CNS (brain, spinal cord), PNS (nerves), motor/sensory divisions1.

Neuron Structure

  • Cell body, dendrites, axon, nodes of Ranvier, myelin sheath1.

Action Potential Steps

  • Depolarization, repolarization, return to resting state1.

Myelination

  • Increases speed of nerve impulse1.

Reflex Arc

  • Sensory neuron → interneuron → motor neuron → effector1.

Brain Structures

  • Cerebrum (thought), cerebellum (coordination), pons, thalamus, medulla, corpus callosum, cortexes, hypothalamus, ventricles, pituitary gland1.

Neurotransmitters

  • Chemical messengers (e.g., dopamine). Drugs can mimic or block them1.

Dopamine

  • Neurotransmitter involved in reward and movement1.

Smell & Taste

  • Smell enhances taste; major tastes: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami1.

Eye Structures

  • Lens (focus), sclera (protection), iris (color), ciliary muscles (shape lens), retina (senses light), pupil (light entry), rods/cones (vision)1.

Ear Structures

  • Sound: auditory canal → tympanic membrane → malleus → incus → stapes → oval window → cochlea1.

Sensory Receptors

  • Mechanoreceptors (touch), chemoreceptors (chemical), nociceptors (pain)1.

Muscular System

Muscle Types

  • Skeletal (voluntary), cardiac (heart), smooth (organs)1.

Muscle Functions

  • Movement, posture, heat. Muscles named by size, shape, location, etc.1.

Muscle Contraction

  • Actin, myosin, tropomyosin, troponin interact; ATP required1.

Muscle Fatigue

  • Caused by ATP depletion, lactic acid buildup1.

ATP Production Pathways

  • Creatine phosphate, glycolysis, aerobic respiration1.

Muscle Injuries

  • Sprain (ligament), strain (muscle/tendon), tendinitis, bursitis, myalgia1.

Immune and Lymphatic Systems

Lymphatic System

  • Returns fluid to blood, immune defense; organs: lymph nodes, spleen, thymus1.

Innate vs. Acquired Immunity

  • Innate: non-specific, fast; acquired: specific, memory1.

Inflammation

  • Response to injury/infection: redness, heat, swelling, pain1.

Immune Components

  • Antigen (foreign), antibody (protein), T cells, B cells, white blood cells1.

Immunity & Vaccination

  • Active: body produces response; passive: receives antibodies1.

Digestive System and Nutrition

Digestive Organs

  • Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, accessory organs (liver, pancreas, gallbladder)1.

Mechanical vs. Chemical Digestion

  • Mechanical: physical breakdown; chemical: enzymes break bonds1.

Alimentary Canal Path

  • Mouth → pharynx → esophagus → stomach → small intestine → large intestine → anus1.

Large Intestine Parts

  • Cecum, colon, rectum, anus1.

Digestive Enzymes

  • Amylase (carbs), protease (proteins), lipase (fats)1.

Liver Functions

  • Metabolism, detoxification, bile production1.

Macronutrients

  • Carbs, proteins, fats: structure, energy, cell function1.

Cellulose

  • A carbohydrate; necessary for fiber in diet1.

Urinary System

Functions and Organs

  • Removes waste, regulates fluid. Organs: kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra1.

Kidney Parts

  • Cortex, medulla, pelvis, collecting ducts1.

System Integration

  • Works with cardiovascular, muscular, reproductive systems1.

Nephron

  • Functional unit of kidney: filters blood1.

Urinalysis

  • Detects disorders by analyzing urine components1.

Excretion vs. Defecation

  • Excretion: metabolic waste (urine); defecation: undigested food (feces)1.

Liver & Urinary System

  • Liver processes toxins for excretion by kidneys1.

Vitamin D Production

  • Kidneys convert vitamin D to active form1.

Cardiovascular System

Functions and Organs

  • Transports nutrients, gases, wastes. Organs: heart, blood vessels, blood1.

Heart Chambers/Valves/Vessels

  • Chambers: right/left atria, right/left ventricles. Valves: tricuspid, pulmonary, mitral, aortic. Vessels: aorta, vena cava, pulmonary arteries/veins1.

Pericardium

  • Membrane surrounding heart1.

Veins vs. Arteries vs. Capillaries

  • Veins: to heart, valves; arteries: from heart, thick walls; capillaries: exchange1.

Blood Pathway

  • Body → right atrium → right ventricle → lungs → left atrium → left ventricle → body1.

Heartbeat Sounds

  • Valves closing. Heart rate: pulse; blood pressure: cuff (sphygmomanometer)1.

Electrical Conduction

  • SA node (pacemaker), AV node, bundle branches, Purkinje fibers. ECG records this1.

Blood Components

  • Red cells (oxygen), white cells (defense), platelets (clotting), plasma (fluid)1.

Agglutination vs. Coagulation

  • Agglutination: clumping (incompatible blood); coagulation: clotting1.

Blood Types

  • A, B, AB, O; compatibility important for transfusions1.

Blood Disorders

  • Anemia (low red cells), leukemia (cancer), hemolytic disease (immune reaction)1.

Respiratory System

Functions and Organs

  • Gas exchange. Organs: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli1.

Inspiration/Exhalation

  • Breathing in/out; ventilation is air movement. Vital capacity: max air volume1.

System Integration

  • Works with muscular (diaphragm), cardiovascular (gas transport)1.

Pulmonary vs. Cellular Respiration

  • Pulmonary: lungs; cellular: mitochondria1.

Pneumonia

  • Infection of lungs1.

Lung Cancer

  • Progresses with smoking; damages lung tissue1.

Endocrine and Reproductive Systems

Endocrine Functions/Organs

  • Hormone production. Organs: glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes, adrenal, thymus, pituitary, pineal, hypothalamus1.

Steroid Hormones

  • Produced by adrenal cortex, gonads1.

Hormone Functions

  • Insulin (glucose regulation), melatonin (sleep), FSH (reproduction)1.

Placenta Hormones

  • Produces hCG, estrogen, progesterone1.

Exocrine vs. Endocrine

  • Exocrine: ducts; endocrine: hormones into blood1.

Endocrine/Nervous Overlap

  • Fight-or-flight: adrenal glands, sympathetic nerves1.

Reproductive Functions/Organs

  • Male: prostate, urethra, testes, penis; Female: uterus, ovaries, fallopian tubes, vagina, labia, clitoris1.

In-vitro Fertilization

  • Fertilization outside body; stages: egg, zygote, morula, blastula, gastrula1.

STIs

  • Viral: hepatitis, herpes, warts, HIV/AIDS. Bacterial: chlamydia, syphilis, gonorrhea1.

Egg Cell Layers

  • Corona radiata, zona pellucida, oocyte, plasma membrane1.

Sperm Chromosomes

  • Located in the head1.

Developmental Milestones

  • Nose, eyes, ears noticeable early; reflexes develop in embryonic period1.

Mullerian/Wolffian Ducts

  • Mullerian: female structures; Wolffian: male structures1.

Stages of Labor

  • Dilation, expulsion, placental, recovery1.

Aging Differences

  • Males/females age differently due to hormones, reproductive changes1.

Spermatogenesis vs. Oogenesis

  • Sperm: continuous, many cells; eggs: cyclical, one per cycle1.