Chapter 8: Memory

Memory: refers to the processes that allow us to record, store, and later retrieve experiences and information.
Encoding: refers to getting information into the system by translating it into a neural code that your brain processes
Storage: involves retaining information over time
Retrieval: refers to processes that access stored information
Sensory Memory: briefly holds incoming sensory information
Short-term memory: a memory store that temporarily holds a limited amount of information
Memory Codes: are mental representations of some type of information or stimulus
Long-Term Memory: is our vast library of more durable stored memories
Serial Position Effect: meaning that the ability to recall an item is influenced by the item’s position in a series

Levels of Processing: the more deeply we process information, the better we will remember it
Maintenance rehearsal: Involves simple, role repetition
Elaborative Rehearsal: which involves focusing on the meaning of information or expanding (i.e., elaborating) on it in some way
Dual Coding Theory: encoding information using both verbal and visual codes enhances memory because the odds improve that at least one of the codes will be available later to support recall
Method of Loci: a memory aid that associates information with mental images of physical locations
Mnemonic Device: a memory aid; things like acronyms
Schema: is a mental framework—an organized pattern of thought—about some aspect of the world
Mnemonist: a person who displays extraordinary memory skills

Associative Network: a massive network of associated ideas and concepts
Priming: refers to the activation of one concept (or one unit of information) by another
Neural Network (connectionist) models: each memory is represented by a unique pattern of interconnected and simultaneously activated nodes
Parallel distributed processing (PDP) models: neural network (connectionist) models are also called this
Declarative memory: involves factual knowledge
Episodic memory: is our store of knowledge concerning personal experiences: when, where, and what happened in the episodes of our lives.
Procedural (nondeclarative) memory: is reflected in skills and actions
Explicit Memory: involves conscious or intentional memory retrieval, as when you consciously recognize or recall something
Implicit memory: occurs when memory influences our behavior without conscious awareness

Retrieval cue: is a stimulus, whether internal or external, that activates information stored in long-term memory.
Autobiographical Memories: recollections of personally experienced events that make up the stories of our lives
Encoding specificity principle: which states that memory is enhanced when conditions present during retrieval match those that were present during encoding
Context-dependent memory: it typically is easier to remember something in the same environment in which it was originally encoded
State-dependent memory: proposes that our ability to retrieve information is greater when our internal state at the time of retrieval matches our original state during learning.
Mood-congruent recall: we tend to recall information or events that are congruent with our current mood

Decay Theory: which proposed that with time and disuse, the long-term physical memory trace in the nervous system fades away
Proactive Interference: occurs when material learned in the past interferes with recall of newer material.
Retroactive Interference: occurs when newly acquired information interferes with the ability to recall information learned at an earlier time.
Tip-of-the-Tounge (TOT) state: in which we cannot recall something but feel that we are on the verge of remembering it
Repression: is a motivational process that protects us by blocking the conscious recall of anxiety-arousing memories.
Prospective memory: concerns remembering to perform an activity in the future
Retrograde amnesia: represents memory loss for events that took place sometime in life before the onset of amnesia
Anterograde amnesia: refers to memory loss for events that occur after the initial onset of amnesia.
Dementia: refers to impaired memory and other cognitive deficits that accompany brain degeneration and interfere with normal functioning.
Alzheimer’s disease (AD): is a progressive brain disorder that is the most common cause of dementia among adults over the age of 65
Infantile Amnesia: loss of memory of early experiences

Misinformation Effect: the distortion of memory by misleading postevent information
Source Confusion: our tendency to recall something or recognize it as familiar but to forget where we encountered it