rm lec2

Characteristics of Scientific Research

• Purposiveness: Research needs a clear purpose or aim.

• Rigor: Careful consideration to minimize errors, requiring a solid theoretical base and methodological design.

• Testability: Research should allow for logical hypothesis testing.

• Replicability: Results should lead to similar conclusions when tests are repeated in similar circumstances.

Additional Characteristics

• Precision and Confidence:

  • Precision: How closely the sample statistic matches the parameter.

  • Confidence: The probability that estimations are accurate.

• Objectivity: Conclusions must stem from actual data findings.

• Generalizability: Wider applicability of results enhances validity.

• Parsimony: Favor efficient models; prefer fewer variables unless additional insight is gained.

Defining Research Problems

Step-by-step Methodology

• Identify Broad Area of Interest: Initial focus.

• Dissect into Sub-Areas: Narrow down potential research topics.

• Select a Sub-Area: Often through elimination.

• Raise Research Questions: Determine specific queries to explore.

• Formulate Objectives: Define what the research aims to achieve.

• Assess Feasibility: Consider cost and time constraints.

• Ensure Interest: Verify personal motivation for the study.

Example: Health Research

Step 1

• Establish overarching theme: Health.

Step 2: Areas within Health

1. Health services provided to the community.

2. Effectiveness of those services.

3. Cost of services.

4. Health insurance schemes available.

5. Training of health professionals.

6. Ethics and adherence in health practices.

7. Consumer attitudes towards health services.

8. Community responsiveness in service delivery.

Step 3: Select Focus

• Selected theme: Community Responsiveness in Health Services.

Step 4: Raise Research Questions

1. Definitions of community responsiveness by stakeholders.

2. Strategies to achieve responsiveness.

3. Indicators for evaluating effectiveness.

Step 5: Objectives Formulation

• Main Objective: Evaluate effectiveness of community-responsive strategies in health service delivery.

1. Understand "Community Responsiveness" concept.

2. Identify strategies for implementation.

3. Develop evaluation indicators for effectiveness.

Step 6: Evaluative Assessment

1. Time availability.

2. Financial resource requirements.

3. Personal technical expertise in the area.

Step 7: Final Review

• Confirm agreement with objectives and adequacy of resources.

Considerations in Topic Selection

• Ensure feasibility of data collection before finalizing a research topic.

Research Phases

Clarity in Research

• Confusion can often precede clarity; embrace it.

Types of Research

Exploratory Research

• Involves secondary data analysis and primary data (qualitative).

Evaluating Secondary Data

• Review criteria: methodology, error, accuracy, currency, and objective dependability of sources.

Qualitative Research Methodology

• Focus Groups: Gathering insights from a small group (8-10 persons).

• Individual Depth Interviews: Conversational methods rather than structured.

• Projective Techniques: Role play, thematic appreciation tests, cartoon tests.

Additional Qualitative Methods

1. Case Studies: Contextual analysis of specific events or conditions.

2. Participant Observation: Engaging with subjects to understand their experiences.

3. Films/Videotapes: Documenting group dynamics in research.

Outcomes of Exploratory Studies

• Results lead to clear problem definitions, such as:

1. Organizational structure vs. decision-making effectiveness.

2. Cultural influences on hierarchical relationships.

3. Effectiveness of downsizing as a turnaround strategy.

Descriptive Research

• Aims to create profiles or describe phenomena, commonly utilizing surveys and observational techniques.

Experimental Research

• Focuses on relationships between dependent and independent variables, necessitating variable manipulation.

Ex-Post Facto Research

• Involves analysis of variables where manipulation is not possible (post-event analysis).

• Example: Investigating gender and creativity in children, or the effects of prior training on performance.

Historical Research

• Investigates past events and their implications, requiring careful data collection and validity checking.

Ethical Issues in Research

Data Collection Ethics

• Ensure full disclosure of research purpose, respect privacy, and maintain participant confidentiality.

Sponsor Ethical Guidelines

• Avoid data alterations, biased interpretations, and omitting uncomfortable findings.

Ethical Data Analysis and Reporting

• Reject deliberate errors or misuse of statistics, and ensure objective recommendations.

Ethical Considerations in Experimental Research

• Protect participant rights, avoid deception, and ensure freedom to withdraw.

Potential Sources of Research Design Errors

• Various categories of errors including measurement, population definition, sampling, data analysis, and respondent-related errors.

Errors in Research

• Understanding total error: The discrepancy between true population values vs. observed data.

• Random Sampling Error: Variation due to differences in sampling.

• Non-Sampling Errors: Result from issues in definitions, methods, or analysis; include both non-response and response errors.