AP Language Rhetoric & Style - Vocabulary Flashcards

Sarcasm

• Definition: From the Greek meaning "to tear flesh"; a bitter, caustic language intended to hurt or ridicule.

• Usage notes:

  • May use irony as a device, but not all ironic statements are sarcastic (intent to ridicule is key).

  • When well done, sarcasm can be witty and insightful; when poorly done, it can be cruel.

• Significance: Helps convey critique or contempt; relies on audience recognizing bite and intention.

Satire

• Definition: A work that targets human vices and follies or social institutions and conventions for reform or ridicule.

• Nature of satire:

  • Best seen as a style of writing rather than a single purpose for writing.

  • Aims can include reform, critique, or social commentary.

• Devices commonly used by satirists: irony, wit, parody, caricature, hyperbole, understatement, and sarcasm.

• Effects: Vary by writer’s goal; good satire is often humorous, thought-provoking, and insightful about the human condition.

Semantics

• Definition: The branch of linguistics that studies meaning, including word meanings, historical/psychological development, connotations, and relations among words.

• Focus areas:

  • Meaning of words and how meaning changes over time.

  • How context affects interpretation and interpretation in communication.

Style

• Two purposes:

  • (1) Evaluation of the sum of a writer’s choices in diction, syntax, figurative language, and other devices; can reveal an author’s unique voice.

  • (2) Classification of authors to historical periods or movements, showing how style reflects broader contexts.

• Descriptors of style: flowery, explicit, succinct, rambling, bombastic, commonplace, incisive, laconic, etc.

• Relevance: Style helps diagnose author’s purpose and effectiveness; recognizable patterns can identify authors or schools.

Subordinate Clause

• Definition: A word group with a subject and a verb that cannot stand alone as a complete thought; depends on a main (independent) clause to complete meaning.

• Indicators: Subordinate conjunctions or relative words such as although, because, unless, if, even though, since, as soon as, while, who, when, where, how, that.

• Function: Adds information but does not form a complete sentence by itself.

Syllogism

• Definition: A deductive system of formal logic with two premises that lead to a conclusion; depends on the validity of the premises.

• Structure (classic):

  • Major Premise: All men are mortal.

  • Minor Premise: Socrates is a man.

  • Conclusion: Therefore, Socrates is mortal.

• Important nuance: The conclusion is valid only if both premises are true; syllogisms may also present the specific idea first (e.g., Socrates) and the general second (e.g., All men).

Symbol/Symbolism

• Definition: Something that represents itself and stands for something else; often concrete in form but representing abstract ideas.

• Classifications of symbols:

  • Natural symbols: Natural objects/events representing ideas (e.g., dawn = hope, rose = love, tree = knowledge).

  • Conventional symbols: Meaning assigned by a group (e.g., crosses, flags, skull and crossbones).

  • Literary symbols: Often conventional across works and widely recognized.

• AP focus: Determine what abstraction the symbol points to and how effectively it conveys that abstraction.

Syntax

• Definition: The arrangement of words into phrases, clauses, and sentences.

• Relation to diction: Syntax concerns word order and structure; diction concerns word choice.

• AP relevance: Questions may ask how an author manipulates syntax to achieve effects; essays require analysis of syntactic impact on meaning or tone.

Theme

• Definition: The central idea or message of a work; the insight it offers about life.

• In fiction: Often unstated; in nonfiction/argumentative writing: may be explicit.

• Significance: Theme guides interpretation and connects to the author’s purpose.

Thesis

• Definition: In expository writing, the sentence(s) that express the author's opinion, purpose, meaning, or position.

• Role: Aids evaluation of how effectively the writer proves the thesis with evidence and reasoning.

Tone

• Definition: The author’s attitude toward the material or the audience; related to mood but is about attitude.

• How to identify: Consider how the text would sound if read aloud; typical descriptors include playful, serious, businesslike, sarcastic, humorous, formal, ornate, sardonic, somber.

Transition

• Definition: A word or phrase linking ideas; signals shifts from one idea to another, especially in expository/argumentative writing.

• Examples: furthermore, consequently, nevertheless, for example, in addition, likewise, similarly, on the contrary.

• Note: Sophisticated writers use subtler transition methods beyond basic words.

Understatement

• Definition: The ironic minimizing of fact; presents something as less significant than it is.

• Effect: Can be humorous and emphatic; often paired with hyperbole for contrast.

• Contrast: Opposite of hyperbole.

Undertone

• Definition: An attitude lying under the ostensible tone of a piece.

• Example: A cheery surface with threatening undertones; used to convey deeper or hidden meanings (e.g., grim undertones in a seemingly light piece).

Wit

• Modern use: Intellectually amusing language that surprises and delights; suggests verbal power and perceptive quickness.

• Style: Often terse; may reveal rapid understanding and clever phrasing.

• Historical note: Originated with broader meanings of understanding and quick perception.

Zeugma

• Definition: The use of a word to govern or modify two or more words, though it may grammatically fit only one or semantically suit only one.

• Examples:

  • Grammatically correct but semantically selective: "John and his license expired last week."

  • One word serving multiple parts: coordinated sense with limited applicability.

Generic conventions

• Definition: Traditions for each genre; conventions help define and differentiate genres (e.g., essay vs. journalistic writing; autobiography vs. political writing).

• AP relevance: On the exam, distinguish unique features of a writer’s work from convention-imposed traits.

Genre

• Definition: Major category for literary works; traditional divisions are prose, poetry, and drama.

• Flexibility: Within these broad categories exist subdivisions (e.g., tragedy, comedy, melodrama, farce).

• AP focus: Passages often come from autobiography, biography, diaries, criticism, essays, and journalistic/political/scientific/nature writing.

Homily

• Definition: Literally a sermon; more generally, a serious talk or lecture offering moral or spiritual advice.

Hyperbole

• Definition: Deliberate exaggeration for emphasis or humorous effect; can produce irony or a serious impact.

Imagery

• Definition: The sensory details or figurative language used to describe, arouse emotion, or represent abstractions.

• Sensory focus: Five senses; can be visual, aural, tactile, olfactory, gustatory, or kinaesthetic.

• Depth: Imagery can be complex and layered with metaphor, simile, and other devices; total imagery can form the work’s sensory landscape.

Inference/Infer

• Definition: Drawing a reasonable conclusion from given information.

• Test-taking note: The safest answer in MCQ questions is the most direct, reasonable inference; avoid implausible inferences.

• Caution: If a claim is not directly stated, it may not be inferable; consider connotation (positive/negative) in options.

Invective

• Definition: An emotionally violent, verbal denunciation or attack using strong, abusive language.

Irony/Ironic

• Definition: The contrast between explicit statement and underlying meaning; the difference between appearance and reality.

• Major types:

  • (1) Verbal irony: The literal meaning is opposite of true meaning.

  • (2) Situational irony: Events turn out opposite to expectations.

  • (3) Dramatic irony: The audience/reader knows more than a character.

• Purpose: Often used to create poignancy or humor; variety of effects depending on context.

Juxtaposition

• Definition: Placing elements side by side to compare/contrast or reveal similarities/differences.

• Effect: Enhances meaning, highlights contrasts, and can create rhetorical impact.

Loose sentence

• Definition: Main idea (independent clause) comes first, followed by dependent phrases or clauses.

• Effect: Usually informal, relaxed, and conversational; creates a loose style.

Metaphor

• Definition: Implied comparison between unlike things, suggesting a similarity.

• Purpose: Enriches writing, adds vividness, provokes thought.

Metonymy

• Definition: Substituting the name of one object closely associated with another for the object itself.

• Example: "The White House declared" instead of "the President declared"; emotionally potent.

Narrative

• Definition: The telling of a story or account of events.

Onomatopoeia

• Definition: A figure of speech where natural sounds are imitated by the sounds of words.

• Examples: buzz, hiss, hum, crack, whinny, murmur.

• Note: If present, consider its effect on tone or mood.

Oxymoron

• Definition: Juxtaposition of contradictory terms for paradoxical effect.

• Examples: "jumbo shrimp"; "cruel kindness".

• Exam use: Not常 in MCQ; may appear in essays; note the intended effect.

Paradox

• Definition: A statement that seems self-contradictory or against common sense but contains truth upon closer inspection.

Parallelism

• Definition: Repetition of a grammatical element (structure) to create balance and rhythm.

• Classic example: "It was the best of times, it was the worst of times."

• Effects: Emphasizes ideas, adds organization, provides musical rhythm.

Parody

• Definition: A work that imitates the style or content of another for comic effect or ridicule.

• Requirements: Often requires knowledge of the original; can enlighten about the original when well done.

• Caveat: Sometimes parody becomes standalone and doesn’t rely on original context.

Pedantic

• Definition: Describes words or tone that is overly scholarly, academic, or bookish.

Periodic Sentence

• Definition: Central meaning appears at the end; main clause is preceded by a dependent sequence.

• Example: "Ecstatic with my AP score, I let out a loud, joyful shout!"

• Effect: Adds emphasis and structural variety; typically stronger than a loose sentence.

Personification

• Definition: Attributing human qualities to concepts, animals, or inanimate objects.

• Purpose: To animate abstractions or objects and make them more vivid.

Point of View

• Definition: The perspective from which a story is told; two general divisions with many subdivisions:

  • (1) First-person narrator: uses I; may be protagonist, participant, or observer.

  • (2) Third-person narrator: uses he/she/it; subtypes include omniscient and limited omniscient.

• Note for AP essays: Point of view can refer to the author’s attitude or stance when analyzing a text.

• Relevance: Shapes reliability, insight, and access to characters’ thoughts and actions.

Prose

• Definition: One of the major genre divisions; includes fiction and nonfiction; length of lines determined by the printer rather than the poet.

Repetition

• Definition: Duplication of any element of language (sound, word, phrase, clause, sentence, grammar pattern).

Rhetoric

• Definition: The art of writing effectively, eloquently, and persuasively; the principles governing persuasive communication.

Rhetorical Modes

• Definition: The four main purposes of writing:

  • (1) Exposition: Explain and analyze information with ideas, evidence, and discussion.

  • (2) Argumentation: Prove the validity of an idea through reasoning and evidence; may aim to persuade or incite action.

  • (3) Description: Re-create or visually present people, places, or events using sensory detail; can be objective or subjective.

  • (4) Narration: Tell a story or recount events; often uses descriptive elements; supports other modes.

Allegory

• Definition: A narrative technique where characters and events symbolize a deeper moral, political, or spiritual meaning beyond the literal level.

• Purpose: Typically conveys broader truths about human existence or social issues.

Alliteration

• Definition: Repetition of initial consonant sounds in neighboring words (e.g., "she sells sea shells").

• Frequency: Not common in MCQ; can appear in essays as a stylistic feature to reinforce meaning or tone.

Allusion

• Definition: A direct or indirect reference to a well-known person, place, event, or work.

• Types: Historical, literary, religious, topical, mythical.

• Use: Adds layers of meaning by invoking shared knowledge.

Ambiguity

• Definition: Multiple meanings of a word, phrase, sentence, or passage; can be intentional or unintentional.

Analogy

• Definition: A similarity or comparison between two different things or the relationship between them.

• Functions:

  • Explain unfamiliar concepts by relating them to familiar ones.

  • Make writing more vivid, imaginative, or engaging.

Anaphora

• Definition: Repetition of the same expression at the beginning of two or more lines, clauses, or sentences.

• Famous example: "It was the best of times; it was the worst of times." (repetition at start of clauses)

Anecdote

• Definition: A short narrative detailing a particular incident or event; often used to illustrate a point or engage the audience.

Antecedent

• Definition: The word, phrase, or clause referred to by a pronoun.

• AP relevance: Questions may ask to identify the antecedent in complex sentences or groups of sentences.

Aphorism

• Definition: A terse, often known truism or moral principle attributed to a specific author (or folk proverb when author unknown).

Apostrophe

• Definition: A figure of speech that directly addresses an absent or imaginary person or personified abstraction (e.g., Liberty, Love).

• Effect: Can intensify emotion or familiarity; can be used for emphasis.

• Example: Wordsworth addressing Milton: "Milton, thou shouldst be living at this hour: England hath need of thee."

Atmosphere

• Definition: The emotional mood created by a literary work’s setting and objects; can foreshadow events and influence tone.

Chiasmus

• Definition: A rhetorical device where words, grammatical constructions, or concepts are repeated in reverse order or inverted in parallel form.

• Example: "Poetry is the record of the best and happiest moments of the happiest and best minds."

Clause

• Definition: A grammatical unit with a subject and a verb.

• Independent clause: Can stand alone as a sentence.

• Dependent (subordinate) clause: Cannot stand alone and must be attached to an independent clause.

• Subordination: Consider why the author subordinates one element to another; effective use strengthens writing.

Colloquial

• Definition: Informal language or slang; not typically suitable for formal writing.

• Effect: Gives a conversational, local, or familiar tone.

Coherence

• Definition: Logical, clear progression of ideas; ensures the meaning of the whole is understandable.

• Units: Words, phrases, clauses, sentences, paragraphs, chapters arranged to create clarity and unity.

Conceit

• Definition: An extended or elaborate metaphor or striking analogy between seemingly dissimilar objects.

• Effect: Demonstrates intellectual cleverness and creates surprising connections.

Connotation

• Definition: The non-literal, associative meaning of a word; the ideas, emotions, or attitudes it evokes.

• Note: Connotations can add nuance beyond denotation.

Denotation

• Definition: The strict, literal dictionary definition of a word, without emotional association.

Diction

• Definition: Word choice; part of style alongside syntax.

• AP focus: Describe diction as formal/informal, ornate/plain, etc., and analyze how it supports purpose.

Didactic

• Definition: From Greek for "teaching"; didactic works aim to teach, especially moral or ethical principles.

Euphemism

• Definition: A milder or more agreeable substitute for an unpleasant term or concept.

• Purposes: To adhere to politeness, political correctness, or to add humor/ironical understatement.

• Example: "earthly remains" instead of "corpse".

Exposition

• Definition: One of the four chief types of composition in essays; to explain information with ideas, evidence, and discussion.

• Drama context: Exposition provides the setting, tone, characters, and conflict early on.

Extended metaphor

• Definition: A metaphor developed at length, often sustaining through a work.

Figurative language

• Definition: Language not intended to carry literal meaning; used to be imaginative and vivid.

Figure of speech

• Definition: A device used to produce figurative language; includes apostrophe, hyperbole, irony, metaphor, metonymy, etc.

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